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Computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, racism, advertising, eavesdropping, consumption of illegal drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, politicians, organized religion groups, and other special interest groups, and may become a part of new laws and legislation in the United States depending on current court cases and debates at Capitol Hill. In recent years, controversy has skyrocketed with the discovery of a downloadable modification that unlocked a sex driven minigame in the highly popular Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. Video game censorship is defined as use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject, as well as a popular topic of debate. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views. Historically, this type of controversy and criticism is not unique to video games. The same situation has been applied to comic books, music (particularly jazz, rock and roll, metal music, and hip hop music), and films. Moreover, it appears to be a question of age. Since these art forms have been around longer, the backlash against them occurred farther in the past, beyond the remembrance of today's youth. In previous cases, the attempts at censorship in the United States were struck down as a violation of First Amendment rights, and they have gone on to become fully integrated facets of society. Background of notable criticism
Studies and theories One common perspective on video and video game violence is Cultivation Theory (sometimes referred to as the Cultivation Hypothesis or Cultivation Analysis), developed by Professor George Gerbner, dean of the Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. Gerbner began the 'Cultural Indicators' research project in the mid-1960s, to study whether and how watching television may influence viewers' ideas of what the everyday world is like. Cultivation research is in the 'effects' tradition and cultivation theorists argue that television, and by extension, computer and video games, has long-term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant. Lt. Col. David Grossman, a former West Point psychology professor, has written several books that pertain to the subject of violence in the media, including On Killing and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill. During heights of video game controversy he has been interviewed on the content of his books, and has repeatedly used the term "murder simulator" to describe first-person shooter games. He argues that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and, more importantly, harden them emotionally to the act of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game. Video game violence critics generally agree that violent video games are at least as bad an influence on children as are television shows with the same level of violence and cruelty, and most seem to believe that video games are more threatening to a child's well-being, because the video game player uses the controller to make an on screen character act out the violence personally. It was widely reported that the killers in the Columbine High School massacre were, like many teenagers, fans of first-person shooter games. They had recorded a videotape before the massacre in which they said they looked forward to using their shotguns just as in the game Doom. Controversy of speeding and evading the authority in racing games has surfaced when a title from the Need for Speed series was found in one of the suspects' cars in Toronto in January 26, 2006, when two street racers were involved in an accident resulting in a taxi-driver's death. However, the police denied any connection between the game and the incident. Although most people tend to play violent video games, it is unclear whether violent tendencies developed by frequent video game players actually resulted from the game-playing or via other means.• Criticism of sexuality and nudity in video games Western video game publishers have not explored sexuality in video games to nearly the degree seen in movies, books, or even TV shows. Almost no American video games display full frontal nudity. However, sexual themes are somewhat common in Japanese video games although companies such as Nintendo and Sony do not publish these games. The following is a list of the few American games containing sexual elements. Response to controversies over sexuality is generally in the form of indignation that video games are singled out where movies, books, and television shows are not (despite the fact that Hollywood exercised the Hays code to ban any movie which violated its strict moral sense in the early half of the 20th century). Retailers have sold "R" and "NC-17"-rated (and in some cases "PG-13" and older "PG") movies showing nudity for the past several decades without generating an equivalent level of moral panic in doing so, and the moral problem they claim to have over video games with nudity is seen as hypocritical by some. Because video games have a rating system roughly equivalent to the movie rating system, the two are analogous. Video games have also been seen to be singled out from other forms of entertainment when it comes, not only to violence, but also to nudity; hence the term pop culture pariah. Criticism related to childrens social development Over two hundred studies have been published which examine the effects of violence in entertainment media and which at least partially focus on violence in video games in particular. Some psychological studies have shown a correlation between children playing violent video games and suffering psychological effects, though the vast majority stop short of claiming behavioral causation. Critics to these argue that many of the studies involved fail to use standardized and reliable measures of aggression, and many selectively discuss findings that support their hypothesized link between video games and aggression, and fail to discuss findings that disconfirm this link. The American Psychological Association summarizes the issue as "Psychological research confirms that violent video games can increase children's aggression, but that parents moderate the negative effects."• Craig A. Anderson has testified before the U.S. Senate on the issue, and his meta-analysis of these studies has shown 5 consistent effects: "increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased prosocial (helping) behavior".• However, some studies explicitly deny that such a connection exists, most notably Anderson and Ford (1986), Winkel et al (1987), Scott (1995), and Ballard and Lineberger (1999). On March 6, 2005, the TV show 60 Minutes took on the case of 18-year old murderer Devin Moore, wherein plaintiffs have argued Grand Theft Auto III and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City inspired him to kill three police officers that came to arrest him for stealing a car. This episode of 60 Minutes has been criticized by the video game community. In October 2005, the Alabama judge sentenced Moore to capital punishment. Some psychologists and parents' groups have criticized video games because they believe they cause children to sit alone in the television room for many hours in a row, interacting with a machine rather than running and playing outside as they exercise and improve their social skills by playing with other children. They claim that video games can be even more addictive to children than TV , and therefore more likely to isolate them socially in this way. Some studies have purported that there is a correlation between depression and playing computer games. Many respond that video games can enhance children's social interaction because many video games are multiplayer games, where two or more players can have fun competing on the same television screen, and that if a child is isolated and antisocial, this is not the fault of video games, but perhaps of the child's inborn disposition, or perhaps of the parents' lack of attention to making sure their child has enough opportunities for social interaction with other children. Additionally, with the advent of online video gaming, it is not difficult for children to find others to play with, although these experiences are often anonymous. Perhaps the most blistering response came from social critic and author J.C. Herz, who suggested that some criticisms of video game violence come from distinctly Marxist and socialist viewpoints from academia, and do not reflect the realities of modern life: That's what we do in America: glorify autonomous individualists. What else would we possibly glorify? The autonomous collective? One can only imagine the kind of arcade game that would pass muster with the leather-elbow-patch set (leap over the running dogs of capitalism, liberate the oppressed proletariat, and accumulate enough petition power to defeat the evil Murdoch). (Herz, Joystick Nation, 1997). Specifically, Herz claimed that such things as a "lack of cooperative behavior" and "aggressiveness" are both necessary and useful traits in a capitalistic society, but that academic psychologists tend to ignore this. Many video game players are upset and angry at these allegations, claiming that video games do not lead children to violent acts, but the irresponsibility of children's parents do. They say that a person should be responsible for what they do, and not be able to use a game as a reason for real-life violence. Criticism from religious organizations Video games have also been criticized from a religious angle as well as a political angle. Much of the criticism of video games from outside the video game community originates from religious sources, often in similar response to claims of violence, crime, sexuality, nudity, rebelliousness, materialism, occultism, and unflattering references to religion in these games. Some gamers oppose their parents' church for these reasons. Such references to religion found in games are often criticized by religious groups of specific denominations. Games such as Breath of Fire II, Xenogears, Final Fantasy Tactics, Castlevania In response to potential criticism, religious content has been censored in some Western releases of Japanese-origin video games. Nintendo in particular would censor many of its US releases back in the NES and SNES era. Castlevania, Dragon Quest, Final Fantasy and other games containing such references as crosses, the words holy, monk, and names of Biblical figures were censored for their US release. The game Terranigma was never released at all in North America, one of the stronger reasons being its religion-influenced plotline. One trophy in Super Smash Bros. Melee Tamagon was locked out of the US release of the game, possibly because of religious reference and the title of the game he originally appeared in (Devil World). In 2002, the Xbox fighting game Kakuto Chojin offended many Muslims with the use of religious chanting in background music. The Saudi Arabian government made a formal protest, and Microsoft pulled the game internationally in early 2003.• Criticisms of the gameplay in and of itself Sometimes there has been criticisms of the gameplay in and of itself by non gamers. This primarily is focused towards RPGs, especially MMORPGs, whose level grinding gameplay critics feel causes obsession or addiction. Another criticized aspect of RPGs is the immersion factor, or virtual reality, which is seen by critics as escapist. Finally, as most RPG leveling mechanics allow for getting stronger by repetitive fighting of weaker enemies for a long time, this is seen as discouraging risk taking or instilling a fear of losing in the gamer. The addiction factor of MMORPGs has led to horrifying stories of people who starve to death while playing games like Everquest or the father who locks his children in the closet so they do not bother him while he plays the game. Some versions of the story have the children starving to death in the closets. Almost all, however, are urban legends. Australia In Australia video games are rated by the Office of Film and Literature Classification, which also rates other media. Unlike movies however, no R18+ or X18+ category exists for video games, and as such if they do not fit into the MA15+ category (suitable for 15 year olds and over), they are effectively banned. This means that games deemed unsuitable for 15 year olds are banned entirely from sale and distribution within the country, even for use by adults. This has been a point of much debate for many years now, and recently the Victorian government has announced plans to try and get an R18+ category introduced. A comprehensive list of games that have been banned in Australia can be found at http://www.refused-classification.com/. The argument for' states, that adults are allowed to see and hear whatever they like. The perception that video games are targeted for children is obviously mistaken, as modern video games target the 18-30 year old males. In 2002, Australia banned Grand Theft Auto III for its actions against virtual prostitutes; the game was later reinstated when this action was removed. Similarly, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was banned in July 2005 following the revelation that sex scenes were included in the minigame unlocked by the Hot Coffee mod; these took the game outside the MA15+ category. The MA15+ rating was re-instated after a modified version was released by Rockstar Games, omitting the Hot Coffee minigame. In 2005 the game 50 Cent: Bulletproof was banned for encouraging gang violence, and Marc Ecko's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure was also banned. Two other games banned in Australia are the highly violent (and controversial) Postal and Postal 2 from Running With Scissors. Canada Individual provinces have officially adopted the ESRB rating system. Previously, retail and rental chains were encouraged to follow the system however, it was voluntary. Ontario adopted the system on March 7, 2005. In April 2005, Nova Scotia adopted the ESRB rating system and on June 1, 2005, Manitoba adopted it. Note that if the public or a provincial film board determines that a game has been inappropriately rated by the ESRB, the provincial film board reserves the right to intervene and re-rate the game with their own rating, as was the case with Manhunt in Ontario and Soldier of Fortune in British Columbia. China Through new laws the Chinese government has said it plans to restrict gamers to three hours of consecutive play, using a “fatigue technique” in games. Children and teenagers are strongly encouraged to play online games only 3 hours per day through this method. After 3 hours their character abilities will be limited. Gamers who spend more than five hours will have the abilities of their in-game character severely limited. Players will be forced to take a five-hour break before they can return to a game with the character back to full capacity. In some cases further playing is locked down through their IP identification number or account with the online game vendor. The operators face little choice as they need government approval to offer online gaming. * The MMO genre of games is big business in China since subscription based games avoid software piracy, and most gamers use Internet cafes as they don't own a personal computer. The company that runs the popular World of Warcraft in China, The9, is listed on the NASDAQ market exchange so they must release an annual report which includes much information on how MMORPGs work in China. For a somewhat abbreviated version there is an article and summary of their report. * Germany In Germany, video games, as with other media, are subject to censorship, or "decency standards", that are strict by the standards of other European nations. For video games there is the index, which is a list of video games, movies and other media considered having bad influence on children and therefore unsuited for anyone under 18. Articles not suited for anyone under 18 cannot be easily sold through mail order in Germany. There are a few specialized companies that sell such games, but require a photocopy of the buyers' ID card as age verification, and the package is only handed over to the buyer personally. This also applies to all imported games, as they don't have a German rating. Games showing the killing of humans with blood or severed body parts involved, or in general showing cruelty to humans, are examined by the BPjM (Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien) and then in some cases placed on the index, at which point it becomes illegal to advertise the games, display them on store shelves, or sell them to anyone under 18. This of course dramatically impacts sales, so most video game companies selling games into Germany elect to create a special German version that narrowly avoids the index by changing the graphics. Instead of red blood coming out of a wound, green blood is shown, implying that aliens are being killed and not humans; or gears and springs are shown coming out of the wound, implying that the victims are robots. For example, the Contra series, known as Probotector in Europe, repeatedly replaced the heroes and many enemies throughout the series with robots. The problem with the index is that games cannot be examined by the BPjM prior to their release, even if requested by the manufacturers, as that would be considered censorship by German standards, which is clearly illegal by the German constitution. However, this has led to many publishers thinking with "scissors in their hands" and removing more content than would have been necessary. Recently, the index has become a little redundant regarding video games, as the USK's (unabhängige Selbstkontrolle = independent Selfcontrol) ratings have been made obligatory and only games that didn't receive a rating can be placed on "the index". Before 1.4.2003 these ratings had been merely suggestions for gamers and the index was the only way to control sales. Nowadays violent games which received an 18+ rating can be sold openly in stores, but the stores are responsible for checking the buyers' age. The self censorship described above has also decreased because of that. Companies still employ it because a 16+ rating can improve sales, but it isn't as excessive as it used to be Moreover, because of Germany's law banning public displays of Nazism and the swastika, several games have been banned for using these symbols, even if the rationale behind their use is clearly critical of the Nazi philosophy. Games such as Wolfenstein 3D and its sequel Return to Castle Wolfenstein, which involve American soldiers on missions to kill Nazi soldiers, are banned, and such software often reminds the player of its illegality in Germany. Although a censored version of Return to Castle Wolfenstein was released in Germany, the original Wolfenstein 3D remains illegal. The display of Nazi symbols in an accurate historical context is permitted nevertheless. This applies especially to World War II movies, which are classified as art and thus exempt from this ban. Video games however are denied being art. There are few World War II video games that are deemed to be historically accurate, but the backgrounds of titles such as Medal of Honor: Allied Assault, Call of Duty and do operate on a historically true background, even if the stories central to the games are exaggerated or fictional for purposes of entertainment. Nonetheless, the symbols were removed, although all other references to the Nazis were kept. In September 2006, due to its graphic violence, the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle has refused to rate the XBox 360 game Dead Rising. Microsoft does not allow unrated games to be published for the Xbox 360, effectively halting the production of a German version of the game. The game is available as an import to players of legal age. Japan Due to cultural preferences, Japanese video games tend to be less bloody than their American counterparts. Gory games are tolerated when such gore is realistic in the context of the game ('in good taste'), as demonstrated in the Japanese born game series Biohazard (known as Resident Evil outside of Japan), Devil May Cry, and Samurai Spirits (which was notably censored in the US.) However, games in which depictions of violence and gore are deemed unneccessery, extravagant, and unethical are censored, such as Mortal Kombat. Consequently, Japanese critics tend to focus instead on the brutal pornography found in some adult Japanese computer games (which have generally not been released outside of Japan). Since 2002, a non-governmental organization CERO is reviewing games and issuing an age recommendation for all products that have been submitted. Violently pornographic games came to national attention in Japan in 1986 with the release by dB-soft of 177, a game where the player takes the role of a rapist. (The game's title originates from the number of the Japanese law criminalizing rape.) 177 was not actually the first game designed around this premise, but it was unusually explicit for that time. The game caused debate in the Japanese parliament and was eventually recalled and re-released with the most controversial scenes removed. In 1992 the pornographic game industry formed the "Ethics Organization for Computer Software", setting industry guidelines for acceptable content and packaging. Those games deemed inappropriate by this organization for minors are released only to people 18 years or older. See also bishōjo game and hentai game. United Kingdom The introduction of controversial games featuring photo-realistic images, such as Mortal Kombat and Night Trap, led to calls from the tabloid press for games to fall under the Video Recordings Act. The UK games publisher trade body ELSPA responded by introducing a voluntary age rating system in 1994. The ELSPA ratings were succeeded by the pan-European ratings system, PEGI, in 2003. However, although games are generally exempt from the Video Recordings Act, those depicting sexual content, or gross violence towards people or animals, must still be submitted to the BBFC for consideration. Carmageddon, in which the gameplay involved mowing down innocent pedestrians, was the first game to be refused classification in 1997 (effectively banning it). The game's publisher, SCI, had a modified version created in which the pedestrians in question were replaced by green-blooded zombies, which completed a successful appeal against the BBFC to overturn their original decision. The uncensored, unmodified version of Carmageddon was later released under an 18-certificate. In 2004, the parents of a murdered 14-year-old boy blamed the game Manhunt as having been "connected" to the murder (It was later found not to be, as the game was found in the victim's home, rather than the killer's.) *, however, Leicestershire police "did not uncover any connections to the computer game." * The accusations prompted some retailers to remove the game from their shelves. *However following this incident the sales of the game rose due to the free publicity from newspaper headlines. United States In the United States, the ESRB ratings system was established in 1994 as the video game equivalent to the MPAA film rating system. The ESRB was created as an industry response to criticism from politicians, notably Senator Joe Lieberman and Herb Kohl, over the easy availability of violent video games such as Mortal Kombat to children, and over the resulting alleged corruption of public morality. At the time, some politicians who lent their voice to this cause threatened legislation relating to video game violence. Nearly all video games are now rated with ESRB ratings, which are primarily intended to inform parents about the content of the games that their children have purchased (or want to purchase). Some important retail chains, such as Wal-Mart, have a policy to check the identification of young purchasers of games rated "Mature" to ensure that the purchaser is at least 17 years old, as recommended by the "Mature" rating. Senator Lieberman stated in 2002 that in his opinion, the video game industry's rating system had become the best rating system of any medium, including the film industry. However, many video game players have criticized him, citing his work as too broad and unaware of the industry as a whole. The ESRB itself has, on numerous occasions, blamed any continued problems with video games on parents. They boast an extremely high approval rating on their ratings, and claim that the labels are there and are properly used. They say that parents need to be more aware of what their children are buying and what they're buying for their children. From time to time, local officials attempt to restrict the playing or selling of violent video games. Predictably, video game publishers always oppose this, and retailers usually do as well. For example, the city of Indianapolis, Indiana in 2000 passed an ordinance barring children from playing arcade games with graphic violence unless parental consent was given. It was generally thought that this law was intended to target the game The House of the Dead, in which players use plastic guns to shoot at the game screen in order to kill zombies that try to kill the player. The ordinance was struck down at the appellate Federal court level, on the grounds that in the United States, video games enjoy some measure of First Amendment free speech protection because they contain real expression of ideas, and children have constitutional rights before the age of 18, and given this, the city did not demonstrate an overriding public interest in passing the ban. Recently, Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich passed a law banning the sale of "violent or sexually explicit" video games to minors under the age of 18. The new law would have taken effect January 1, 2006, but was struck down by District Court judge Matthew Kennelly. About three months later, similar laws were passed by Michigan governor Jennifer Granholm and California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. The California law, as California Assembly Bills 1792 & 1793, was sponsored by Leland Yee, the Speaker pro Tem of the Assembly and a child psychologist. Both of these laws were given temporary injunctions pending further court review, but are likely to be ruled unconstitutional by the federal court. On November 29, 2005, Senators Hillary Clinton, Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act. The act was intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games, although it has not passed through the Senate Elsewhere Video game violence is similarly controversial in South Korea, and similar "no blood" regulations apply. South Korea also regularly bans games that depict North Korea and South Korea at war, or that demonize South Koreans. Ghost Recon 2 and have been banned for these reasons. Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory was also banned in South Korea due to the destruction of the South Korean capital Seoul in the game. In July 2002, the Greek Parliament passed Greek Law Number 3037, entirely outlawing electronic gaming. This controversial law has been frowned upon, not only in Greece, but elsewhere in Europe and in the United States, and petitions were made against it. In December 2003 it was restricted to only affect Internet cafes in accordance with a letter from the European Union. In December 2003, Manhunt was banned in New Zealand. In 1999 the sales of two games were forbidden by the Brazilian Ministry of Justice: The Carmageddon series and the Grand Theft Auto series.. In Argentina, federal legislation (Law No. 26.043) states that Manufacturers and/or importers of video games are required to display the warning "Overexposure is harmful to health" on the packaging in which such products are marketed. The rating "Suitable for all ages", "Suitable for persons aged 13 or over" or "Suitable for persons aged 18 or over", as applicable, must also be displayed. In Italy some sporadic attempts of video games censorship and/or banning have been made in the past. The game Carmageddon was censored when first released, showing zombies instead of people and green blood. This censorship was not applied to the sequels, and apparently even the first game was re-released into its original form after some time; When Resident Evil 2 was released in 1998, it was banned from stores after a protest made by a group of conservative mothers, but it reappeared after few days following the sentence of a judge. Typical criticism from within the industry Within the video game industry, there is not much self-criticism about excessive sexuality or violence, as it is generally believed that video games are not exclusively for the consumption of children. In fact, there is considerable evidence that children actually represent a minority market, and the vast majority of game players are adults, whose much greater disposal income represents a vastly more attractive market to game developers. The industry also argues that video game publishers have as much right to explore adult-oriented, mature themes as do movie studios or book publishers. Some developers and publishers find some of this type of content distasteful and do not produce it, but in general there is not much agitation to set limits on adult content for the industry as a whole, beyond the presence of the ESRB rating system, which has come to be viewed by most people as a good move for the industry. There is some criticism over the use of violence in games as a crutch for creativity; it is alleged that if a developer cannot invent an original, fun activity for the player, he'll end up giving the player the time-honored task of shooting a monster, usually in a violent manner. A striking reaction from within the industry is Box Stacker, a game that Take-Two Interactive (parent company of Rockstar Games, who created the GTA series) was supposedly going to release sometime in 2005. An article with a screenshot was seen on the internet, describing the game as "a first-person vertical-crate-arranger guaranteed not to influence young people's behavior in any way". The article was a cynical prank however, and the game was never released. Uninteresting and uncreative games Critics of movies and books as a group look down on video games as an inferior form of entertainment. Most criticism of video games from within the gaming community also relates to quality. This is probably because of the observation that most older video games had a linear story structure with very little plot and even less character development, which may or may not be true. A frequent counterargument is that this is like complaining that a game of football does not contain much plot or character development, and that although video games include a narrative, they are really about acting in and against a virtual world, which is not primarily based upon passively seeing and hearing. Another point of view compares video games to the movies, which during the silent era were also considered mere entertainment. Other criticisms include unrealistic aspects of graphics or gameplay, games that are simply not fun to play, an apparent lack of games that appeal to women and girls, and a strong and increasing tendency of video game publishers to avoid risks and originality, and only fund games which are already safe bets before development begins. In particular, there has been a perceived increase in: Some of these problems in low creativity are also seen in the movie industry, with movies being based on older TV shows, and the many sequels that come out every year. Notable controversial video games Main Article: List of controversial games See also Rating systems Legislation Proponents of video game censorship Neutral Opponents of video game censorship | |||||||||
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