Perhaps as early as the 12th Dynasty, Pharaoh Senusret III (1878 BC - 1839 BC) may have had a west-east canal dug through the Wadi Tumilat, joining the Nile with the Red Sea, for direct trade with Punt, and thus allowing trade indirectly between the Red Sea and Mediterranean. Evidence indicates its existence at least by the 13th century BC during the time of Ramesses II (see *, *, *, *, *). It later fell into disrepair, and according to the ''Histories'' of the Greek historian Herodotus, re-excavation was undertaken about 600 BC by Necho II; though Necho II never completed his project.

The canal was finally completed by Darius I, the Persian conqueror of Egypt. According to Herodotus, the completed canal was wide enough such that two triremes could pass each other with oars extended, and that the length of the canal was a voyage of 4 days. Darius commemorated his achievement with a number of granite stelae that he set up on the Nile bank, including one near Kabret, 130 miles from Pie. The Darius Inscriptions read:


It was again restored by Ptolemy II about 250 BC. Over the next 1000 years it was successively modified, destroyed and rebuilt, until finally being put out of commission in the eighth century by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur.

More than a thousand years elapsed before the next attempt was made to dig a canal. At the end of the 18th century, Napoleon Bonaparte, while in Egypt, contemplated the construction of a canal to join the Mediterranean and Red Seas. His project was abandoned, however, after a first survey erroneously concluded that the waters of the Red Sea were 10 meters higher than those of the Mediterranean, making a giant locks based canal much too expensive and very long to construct. The Napoleonic survey commission's error came from fragmented readings mostly done during wartime, which therefore resulted in imprecise calculations.

In 1854 and 1856 Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained concession from Said Pasha, the viceroy of Egypt, whom de Lesseps, as a French diplomat, had come to know in the 1830s and had a very friendly relation with. Said Pasha authorized the creation of a company for the purpose of constructing a maritime canal open to ships of all nations according to plans created by Austrian engineer Alois Negrelli. By way of a lease of the relevant land, the company was to operate the canal for 99 years from its opening to navigation. The Suez Canal Company (Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez) came into being on December 15 1858.

The excavation operations took nearly eleven years to accomplish, mostly through the forced labor of Egyptians workers. However this unofficial working condition was not unique to the French, nor the British before them, and was actually in use in Egypt for millennia, since the construction of the pyramids. It is estimated that during the decade of work, over 30,000 people were forced to work on the canal.* The British, willing to stop the French project at any cost, sent armed bedouins to start a revolt among workers. Involuntary labor ceased on the project, and shortly thereafter, the Viceroy condemned the slavery and the project was stopped The British government officially condemned the forced work.

The British Empire's power increased during the American Civil War and it was the first global naval force. The British recognized the canal as an important trade route and the French project was perceived as a direct menace to their geopolitical and financial interests. Angered by the British opportunism, de Lesseps sent a letter to the British government remarking on the British lack of remorse only a few years earlier when 80,000 * Egyptian forced workers died in similar conditions in order to build the British railtrack in Egypt.

At first, the international opinion was sceptical and the Suez Canal Company shares did not sell well overseas (e.g. Britain, United States, Austria and Russia did not buy a single one). All French shares were quickly sold in France though. A contemporary British sceptic claimed:




Although numerous technical, political (due to the British rivalry), and financial problems were overcome, the final cost was more than double the original estimate. The canal opened to traffic on November 17, 1869.

The canal had an immediate and dramatic effect on world trade. Combined with the completion of the American Transcontinental Railroad six months earlier, the entire world could be circled in record time. It played an important role in increasing European penetration and colonization of Africa. External debts forced Said Pasha's successor, Isma'il Pasha, to sell his country's share in the canal for £400,000 to the United Kingdom in 1875, but France still remained as the majority shareholder. The Convention of Constantinople in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British; British troops had moved in to protect it during a civil war in Egypt in 1882. Under the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, the United Kingdom insisted on retaining control over the canal. In 1951, Egypt repudiated the treaty, and by 1954 the United Kingdom had agreed to pull out.

After the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the Aswan Dam because Egypt had sought weaponry from the Soviet Union, President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal. This caused Britain, France, and Israel to invade, in the week-long Suez Crisis of 1956. As a result of damage and sunken ships, the canal was closed until April 1957, when it had been cleared with UN assistance. A United Nations force (UNEF) was established to maintain the neutrality of the canal and the Sinai Peninsula.

After the Six Day War in 1967, the canal was closed until June 5, 1975. In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, the canal was the scene of a major crossing by the Egyptian army into Israeli-controlled Sinai; later, the Israeli army crossed the canal westward.

A multinational observer force (MFO), mostly consisting of U.S. Army troops, currently monitors the Sinai. After a U.N. mandate expired in 1979, negotiations began for a new observer force. In 1981, the MFO was stationed in the Sinai in coordination with a phased Israeli withdrawal. This force is not under United Nations auspices. It is there under agreements between the U.S., Israel, Egypt, and other participating nations. (Multinational Force and Observers)

Circa 1799 — Napoleon I of France conquered Egypt and ordered a feasibility analysis. This reported a supposed 10 metre difference in sea levels, and a high estimated cost, so the project was set on standby.

Circa 1840 — A second survey demonstrated that the first one was erroneous; a direct link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea would be possible and would not be as expensive as expected.

Circa 1854 — The French consul in Cairo, Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, created the "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez".

25 Apr 1859 — The French were officially allowed to begin the canal construction (Said Pacha acquired 22% of the Suez Canal Company, the rest of the shares were controlled by French private holders).

16 Nov 1869 — The Suez Canal opened; operated and owned by Suez Canal Company.

25 Nov 1875 — Britain become a minority share holder in the Suez Company, acquiring 44% of the Suez Canal Company. The rest of the shares were controlled by French syndicates.

25 Aug 1882 — Britain took control of the canal.

14 Nov 1936 — Suez Canal Zone established, under British control.

13 Jun 1956 — Suez Canal Zone restored to Egypt.

26 Jul 1956 — Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal.

5 Nov 1956 to 22 Dec 1956 — French, British, and Israeli forces occupied the Suez Canal Zone.

22 Dec 1956 — Restored to Egypt.

5 June 1967 to 5 June 1975 — Canal closed and blockaded by Egypt.

10 April 1975 — Suez Canal reopened.