|
In grammar, the subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a verbal mood that exists in many languages. It typically expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), emotion, possibility, judgment, necessity, and statements that are contrary to fact at present. The details of subjunctive use vary from language to language. Indo-European The reconstructed Proto Indo-European language is the hypothetical parent of many language families. These include Germanic languages (including English), Italic languages, Slavic languages and several others. It has two closely related moods: the subjunctive and the optative. Many of its daughter languages combined or merged these moods. In Indo-European, the subjunctive was formed by using the full ablaut grade of the root of the verb, and adding the thematic vowel The optative mood was formed with a suffix Among the Indo-European languages, only Albanian, Avestan, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and to some extent Old Church Slavonic kept the subjunctive and optative fully separate and parallel. However, in Sanskrit, use of the subjunctive is only found in the Vedic language of earliest times, and the optative and imperative are in comparison less commonly used. In the later language (from c.500BC), the subjunctive falls out of use, with the optative or imperative being used instead. However, the first person forms of the subjunctive continue to be used, as they are transferred to the imperative, which formerly, like Greek, had no first person forms. Form The form of the subjunctive in Modern English is distinguishable from the indicative in only three circumstances: Additionally, the modal auxiliaries do not have present subjunctive forms. Other than the verb to be, the past subjunctive was distinguishable from the past indicative in Early Modern English in the second-person singular. For example: indicative thou sattest, but subjunctive thou sat. In some texts that use the pronoun thou, a final -est or -st is sometimes added; for example, thou beest appears frequently in the work of Shakespeare and some of his contemporaries. Present and past subjunctive The terms present subjunctive and past subjunctive can be misleading, as they describe forms rather than meanings: the past and present subjunctives are so called because they resemble the past and present indicatives, respectively, but the difference between them is a modal one, not a temporal one. For example, in "I asked that it be done yesterday," be done (a present subjunctive) has no present-tense sense; and likewise, in "If that were true, I'd know it," were (a past subjunctive) has no past-tense sense. The pluperfect subjunctive Since the "past subjunctive" is not a true past tense, it uses as its past tense what is structurally its perfect aspect form. This past tense is known as the past perfect subjunctive or pluperfect subjunctive; it is formed using had (the past subjunctive of to have) plus the verb's past participle. The pluperfect subjunctive is used like the past subjunctive, except that it expresses a past-tense sense. So, for example: If a clause is in a past tense, then a clause subordinate to it cannot be in the past subjunctive, though it might be in the pluperfect subjunctive; however, if it is in a present tense, then a clause subordinate to it might be in either of the two, depending on meaning. All that said, the pluperfect subjunctive is often replaced with the past subjunctive in colloquial speech, a substitution that is commonly considered incorrect. (See prescription and description.) (Note that by contrast, the present perfect subjunctive — that he have done — while logically and theoretically possible, is not much used in modern English.) Future subjunctive A future subjunctive can be constructed using the conjugated form of the verb "to be" plus the infinitive or with the usage of the modal auxiliary verb "should". Note that the "were" clauses result in the present conditional, while the "should" clauses result in the future indicative. For example:
Construction by inversion Where the subjunctive is used after “if” in a counterfactual condition (see below), the same effect can be achieved by omitting the “if” and inverting the verb and subject.
Construction using a modal verb The subjunctive mood can be expressed using the modal verbs shall (should) and may (might).
Usage As well as being preserved in fossilized phrases, the subjunctive is used in English to express a command, desire, hypothesis, purpose, doubt or supposition. Set phrases The subjunctive is used in a number of fixed phrases, relics from an older form of the language where it was much more common. Common examples are:
To express a command Content clauses expressing commands, requests, or suggestions commonly use the present subjunctive; such a clause may be introduced by a verb like propose, suggest, recommend, move (in the parliamentary sense), demand, or mandate, by an adjective like imperative, important, adamant, or necessary, or by a noun like insistence or proposal. Note that the present subjunctive is used in these cases regardless of the actual time reference (which must be conveyed by the tense of the main verb): Some of these words have two senses: one that introduces a clause in the indicative, and one that introduces a clause in the subjunctive. For example, insist can mean assert forcefully and persistently, in which case it introduces the indicative (He insisted that he was innocent), or it can mean demand forcefully and persistently, in which case it introduces the subjunctive (He insisted that he be given the chance to prove it). Sometimes the verb of a main clause can be in the subjunctive mood, without any explicit word like the above; this carries the force of a third-person request. This is the usage found in many set expressions, such as God bless you.
This use of the subjunctive is sometimes known as the "jussive" or "mandative" subjunctive. The traditional English text of the Aaronic blessing is cast entirely in the subjunctive, with jussive force: The Lord bless thee and keep thee. The Lord make his face to shine upon thee. The Lord lift up his countenance upon thee and give thee peace. To express a wish The past subjunctive is used after the verb to wish: I wish he were here or I wished he were there. To express a hypothesis The past subjunctive is used after the conjunction if in a contrary-to-fact protasis. For example:
In the same vein, the past subjunctive is used following the conjunctions as if and as though to express a contrary-to-fact situation that reality is supposed to resemble:
As seen in the second of these examples, these constructions are often used derisively. Note that the past subjunctive is sometimes used in expressing situations that are not necessarily contrary to fact:
However, such uses are not universal, and are often regarded as ungrammatical. * To express a purpose The present subjunctive is used following the conjunction lest to express a negative possibility, and (so) that to express positive purpose.
To express a doubt or supposition The subjunctive is sometimes used after other conjunctions to express doubt or supposition, although this usage is nowadays more often replaced by the indicative.
Hypercorrect usage The subjunctive has sometimes been used simply as a conditioned variant that follows "if" and similar words even in the absence of a hypothetical situation.
In the example quoted, "if" is a substitute for the unambiguous word "whether" ("Johnny asked me whether I was afraid"), and lacks the usual, "in the event that" meaning that it has in other usage such as "If we go to bed now, we'll be up at three o'clock". Demise of the subjunctive? In many dialects of English, the indicative can take the place of the subjunctive, although this is sometimes considered erroneous in formal or educated speech and writing.
However, in the context of the examples above, inversion cannot occur with the indicative as it would with the subjunctive.
Furthermore, many of the fossil phrases are often re-analyzed as imperative forms rather than as the subjunctive. W. Somerset Maugham said that "The subjunctive mood is in its death throes, and the best thing to do is to put it out of its misery as soon as possible". H.W. Fowler said that "Subjunctives met with today, outside the few truly living uses, are either deliberate revivals by poets for legitimate enough archaic effect, or antiquated survivals as in pretentious journalism, inflecting their context with dullness, or new arrivals possible only in an age to which the grammar of the subjunctive is not natural but artificial." The subjunctive is not uniform in all varieties of spoken English. However it is preserved in speech, at least, in North American English, and in many dialects of British English. Some dialects replace it with the indicative or construct it using a modal verb (except perhaps in the most formal literary discourse). Germanic languages In the Germanic languages, subjunctives are also usually formed from old optatives. In German, subjunctives are typically marked with an -e ending, and often with i-umlaut, showing once more the presence of the The subjunctive in German In German it is generally accepted that there are two forms of the subjunctive mood - Konjunktiv I ('present' subjunctive, often abbreviated as KI) and Konjunktiv II ('past' subjunctive, often abbreviated as KII), both of which can actually be expressed in (almost) all tenses. The KI is normally used to express indirect (reported) speech. For example: Er sagte mir, er sei nicht bereit. — He told me that he wasn't ready. In this case, present subjunctive 'sei' replaces the imperfect indicative 'ist'. Es wurde gesagt, er habe keine Zeit für so was. — It is said that he has no time for this kind of thing. In this case, present subjunctive 'habe' replaces the present indicative 'hat'. Many examples of the subjunctive can be found in German newspapers and magazines. The KI for regular verbs in German is formed by adding -e, -est, -e, -en, -et, -en to the stem. The verb sein (to be) deviates somewhat from this rule, producing ich sei; du seiest; er sei; wir seien; ihr seiet; sie seien. While the use of Konjunktiv I for reported speech is considered "correct" German, its use in colloquial speech is in continual decline. It is possible to express the KI in various tenses, including the present (er sei da gewesen) and the future (er werde da sein) although the latter is rarely used. The Konjunktiv I in the imperfect and conditional does exist, but they are identical to their indicative equivalents and are not worth considering in day-to-day communication. The KII is used to form the conditional tense and, on occasion, as a replacement for the Konjunktiv I when both indicative and subjunctive moods of a particular verb are indistinguishable. Although every verb in the German language can be expressed in the Konjunktiv II, only a small number are actually used in this mood in colloquial speech, such as sein (ich wäre). The most common method of forming the conditional in German is to render the verb werden (to become) in the Konjunktiv II form and append the infinitive of the action, as in An deiner Stelle würde ich das nicht tun (I wouldn't do that if I were you), as opposed to Das täte ich nicht, which, while also grammatically correct, is seldom used. It is formed from the stem of the preterite (imperfect) form of the verb and appending the appropriate Konjunktiv I ending as appropriate, although in most regular verbs the final 'e' in the stem is dropped. In most cases, an umlaut is appended to the stem vowel if possible (i.e. if it is a, o, u or au), for example: ich war → ich wäre, ich brachte → ich brächte. The use of werden for some conditional clauses and the Konjunktiv II for others can lead to a mix of the two in a single sentence. See also German grammar. The subjunctive in Dutch Dutch has the same subjunctive tenses as German (described above), but nowadays they are almost never used. The same two tenses as in German are sometimes considered subjunctive and sometimes conditional. Some sentences that are used often used in Dutch still contain the subjunctive mood: The above sentences are all in the present tense, the past tense subjunctive mood of zijn (to be) is also used rather frequently to indicate a non-reality, something that didn't happen. It translates with the English past subjunctive were: Latin and the Romance languages The Latin subjunctive is mostly made of optative forms, while some of the original subjunctive forms went to make the Latin future tense, especially in the Latin third conjugation. In Latin, the The subjunctive mood retains a highly distinct form for nearly all verbs in Portuguese, Spanish and Italian (among other Latin languages), and for a number of verbs in French. All of these languages inherit their subjunctive from Latin, where the subjunctive mood combines both forms and usages from a number of original Indo-European inflection sets (described above), including the original subjunctive and the optative mood. In many cases, the Romance languages use the subjunctive in the same ways that English does; however, they use them in other ways as well. For example, English generally uses the auxiliary may or let to form desiderative expressions, such as "Let it snow." The Romance languages use the subjunctive for these; French, for example, would say, "Qu'il neige" and "Qu'ils vivent jusqu'à leur vieillesse." (However, in the case of the first-person plural, these languages have imperative forms: "Let's go" in French is "Allons-y.") Also, the Romance languages tend to use the subjunctive in various kinds of subordinate clauses, such as those introduced by words meaning although (English: "Although I'm old, I feel young"; French: Bien que je sois vieux, je me sens jeune.) In Spanish, phrases with words like lo que (that which, what), quien (who), or donde (where) and subjunctive verb forms are often translated to English with some variation of "whatever". (Spanish: "lo que sea", English: "whatever", "anything"; Spanish: "donde sea", English: "wherever"; Spanish: "quien sea", English: "whoever"; Spanish: "lo que quieras", English: "whatever you want"; Spanish: "cueste lo que cueste", English: "whatever it costs") The subjunctive in French In French, despite the deep phonetic changes that the language has undergone from the original Latin, which include the loss of many inflections in the spoken language, the subjunctive (le subjonctif) remains prominent, largely because the subjunctive forms of many common verbs are strongly marked phonetically; compare the indicative je sais (I know) and its subjunctive counterpart je sache. (However, the present indicatives and present subjunctives of most verbs are homonyms when they have singular subjects: je parle (I speak) is both the present indicative and the present subjunctive.) Use of the subjunctive is in many respects similar to English: But sometimes not: French also has an imperfect subjunctive, which in older, formal, or literary writing replaces the present subjunctive in a subordinate clause when the main clause is in a past tense: Also in older, formal, or literary writing, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives double as a "second form" of the conditional and conditional perfect, in which case they are used in both the protasis and the apodosis: For more on the subjunctive in French, see French verbs. The subjunctive in Italian The Italian subjunctive (il congiuntivo) is similar to the French subjunctive in formation and use, but is somewhat more common. The subjunctive is used mainly in subordinate clauses following a set phrase or conjunction, such as benché, senza che, prima che, or purché for example. It is also used with verbs of doubt, possibility and expressing an opinion or desire, for example with credo che, è possibile che, and ritengo che, and with superlatives and virtual superlatives. One difference between the French subjunctive and the Italian is that Italian uses the subjunctive after expressions like "Penso che" ("I think that"), where French would use the indicative. Present Subjunctive The present subjunctive is similar to, but still mostly distinguishable from, the present indicative. Subject pronouns are often used with the present subjunctive where they are normally omitted in the indicative, since in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular forms are spelt the same, so the person is not implicitly implied from the verb. Irregular verbs tend to follow the 1st person singular form, such as the present subjunctive forms of andare, which goes to vada etc (1st person sing form is vado). The present subjunctive is used in a range of situations in clauses taking the subjunctive. The present subjunctive is used mostly in subordinate clauses, as in the examples above. However, exceptions include imperatives using the subjunctive (using the 3rd person), and general statements of desire. Imperfect Subjunctive The Italian imperfect subjunctive is very similar in appearance to the French imperfect subjunctive, and forms are largely regular, apart the verbs essere, dare and stare (which go to fossi, dessi and stessi etc). However, unlike in French, where it is often replaced for the present subjunctive, the imperfect subjunctive is far more common. Verbs with a contracted infinitive, such as dire (short for dicere) revert to the longer form in the imperfect subjunctive (to give dicessi etc, for example). The imperfect subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses taking the subjunctive where the sense of the verb requires the imperfect tense. The imperfect subjunctive is used in “if” clauses, where the main clause is in the conditional tense, as in English and German. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctives The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are formed much like the indicative perfect and pluperfect, except the auxiliary (either avere or essere) verb takes the present and imperfect subjunctive respectively. They are used in subordinate clauses which require the subjunctive, where the sense of the verb requires use of the perfect or pluperfect. The subjunctive in Spanish In Spanish, the subjunctive (subjuntivo) is used in conjunction with expressions of emotion, opinion, or viewpoint. It is also used to describe situations that are considered unlikely or are in doubt, as well as for expressing disagreement, denial, or wishes. There are many common expressions that commonly introduce subjunctive clauses. Examples include: Spanish has two past subjunctive forms. They are almost identical, except that where the "first form" has -ra-, the "second form" has -se-. Both forms are usually interchangeable although the -se- form may be more common in Spain than in other Spanish-speaking areas. The -ra- forms may also be used as an alternative to the conditional. Spanish used to have a future subjunctive tense, but it is now all but extinct. It is never heard in everyday speech, and is usually reserved for literature, archaic phrases and expressions, and legal documents. Phrases expressing the subjunctive in a future time-frame instead employ the present subjunctive. For example: "I hope it will rain tomorrow" would simply be "Espero que mañana llueva" (where llueva is the third-person singular present subjunctive of llover, "to rain"). The subjunctive in Portuguese In Portuguese, the subjunctive (subjuntivo or conjuntivo) is used to talk about situations which are seen as doubtful, imaginary, hypothetical, demanded, or required. It can also express emotion, opinion, disagreement, denial, or a wish. Its value is similar to the one it has in formal English: As in Spanish, the imperfect subjunctive is still in vernacular use, and it is employed, among other things, to make the tense of a subordinate clause agree with the tense of the main clause: The imperfect subjunctive is also used when the main clause is in the conditional: Note that there are authors who regard the conditional of Portuguese as a past tense of the indicative mood, rather than as a separate mood; some even call it futuro do pretérito (future of the preterite), especially in Brazil. Portuguese differs from other Romance languages in having retained the medieval future subjunctive (futuro do subjuntivo), which is rarely used in Spanish and Galician and has been lost in other West Iberian Romance languages. It expresses a condition that must be fulfilled in the future, or is assumed to be fulfilled, before an event can happen. Spanish and English will use the present tense in this type of clause. For example, in conditional sentences whose main clause is in the conditional, Portuguese, Spanish and English employ the past tense in the subordinate clause. But if the main clause is in the future, Portuguese will employ the future subjunctive where English and Spanish use the present indicative. Contrast the following two sentences. The first situation is imaginary; we know that the speaker is not a king. But the second statement expresses a promise about the future; the speaker may yet be elected president. For a different example, a father speaking to his son might say: The future subjunctive is identical in form to the personal infinitive in regular verbs, but they differ in some irregular verbs of frequent use. However, the possible differences between the two tenses are due only to stem changes. They always have the same endings. The subjunctive in Arabic In Standard/Literary Arabic the verb in its imperfective aspect (almudāri‘) has a subjunctive form called the mansūb form. It is distinct from the indicative in either ending in -a or dropping the final na: Indicative=> Subjunctive and Jussive 2 sing. fem. taktabiina=>taktabii 3 plur. masc. yaktabuuna=>yaktabuù The subjunctive is used in that-clauses, after Arabic an: urīdu an aktuba "I want to write". However in conditional and precative sentences, such as "if he goes" or "let him go", a different form of the imperfective aspect, the jussive, majzūm, is used. In many spoken Arabic dialects there remains a distinction between indicative and subjunctive, but there it is not through endings but a prefix. In Levantine Arabic, the indicative has b- while the subjunctive lacks it: Egyptian Arabic has a similar prefix bi-, while Moroccan Arabic uses ka- or ta-. The subjunctive in Hebrew Final vowels disappeared from Hebrew in prehistoric times, so the distinction between indicative, subjunctive and jussive is nearly totally blurred even in Biblical Hebrew. A few relics remain for roots with a medial or final semivowel, such as yaqūm "he rises / will rise" versus yaqom "may he rise" and yihye "he will be" versus yehi "let him be". In modern Hebrew the situation has been carried even further, with the falling into disuse of forms like yaqom and yehi; instead, the future tense (prefix conjugation) is used for the subjunctive, often with the particle she- added to introduce the clause, if it is not already present (similar to French que). The Biblical subjunctive survives in the third person singular forms of the verbs to be (להיות — lihyot, יהי/תהי or יהא/תהא) and to live (לחיות — likhyot, יחי/תחי), mostly in a literary register: | |||||||
|
| ||||||||
 |
|
| |