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An artificial powered exoskeleton is a self-powered exoskeleton typically intended for use by humans in battle, construction and survival in dangerous environments. The concept first appeared in fiction in Stratemeyer Syndicate's Tom Swift and His Jetmarine novel and was later popularized in science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein's novel Starship Troopers. It has since been used regularly in text novels, graphic novels, and animation, particularly in Japan. Technological developments have since brought the concept much closer to reality, though various problems with control, power and motive elements (the 'muscles' of the exoskeleton) remain to be solved.
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Current research
The United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and other organizations have researched exoskeletons for combat for decades, but progress has been limited and the actual utility of such systems in combat is still debated (with no systems known to have reached more than prototype status).
In the early 2000s a number of companies and research centres developed the first practical models of human exoskeletons. One of the main uses is enabling a soldier to carry heavy weights (80–300 kg) while running or climbing stairs. Most models use a hydraulic system controlled by an on-board computer. They can be powered by an internal combustion engine, batteries or, potentially, fuel cells. Another area of application is medical care, nursing in particular. Faced with the impending shortage of medical professionals and the increasing number of people in elderly care, several teams of Japanese engineers have developed exoskeletons designed to help nurses lift and carry patients.
Exoskeletons can also be applied in the area of rehabilitation of stroke or SCI patients. An exo-skeleton could reduce the number of therapists needed by allowing even the most impaired patient to be trained by one therapist, whereas now several are needed. Also training would be more uniform, easier to analyse retrospectively and can be specifically customized for each patient. At this time there are several projects designing training aids for rehabilitations centres (LOPES exoskeleton, LOKOMAT and the gait trainer).
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Future speculation
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As the technology becomes cheaper, and the problem of a reliable, portable power-source is solved, many expect exoskeletons to become widely used in the future by the military and police, and later by civilians. They may also benefit people who have been disabled by crippling diseases like ALS and multiple sclerosis, or simply general aging effects.
However exoskeletons may have to compete for adoption with cyborgs - enhancing the human body itself with implants and prosthetics. Yet any advances in these fields may also help exoskeletal research, in that direct links to the nervous system may become possible. This would help integrating the mechanical parts with the body, thus creating more fluent movement and control.
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Powered armor in fiction
In most portrayals of powered armor, the suit is usually not much larger than a human. In fact, it is more accurately described as a battlesuit with mechanical and electronic mechanisms designed to augment the wearer's abilities. (Any mechanical armor that is much larger than the human body would fall under the category of mecha, and the line between the two can be difficult to determine at times — see MADOX-01 for instance.) In addition to the benefits provided by the exoskeleton, other popular features include internal life support for hostile environments, protection from environmental hazards such as radiation and vacuum, weapons targeting systems, firearms affixed directly to the suit itself, and transportation mechanisms that allow the wearer to fly, make giant leaps, or speed by on ground.
All of these systems are usually powered by some on-board, self-sufficient power source. Masamune Shirow's Landmates in Appleseed used simple internal combustion engines installed into the thigh assembly of the armor. Still, more fantastic power sources have been introduced, for example, in Halo and Halo 2, the Master Chief's MJOLNIR armor is powered by miniaturized fusion power reactors. In Privateer Press' Iron Kingdoms setting, a steam boiler powers an arcane conversion engine, which ultimately powers the suit. Similarly, in Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the suits are powered by single-celled organisms cultured in Ovo Packs.
Not all sci-fi exoskeletons are mechanical, as modification of biological systems can produce similar strength, such as the Skin exoskeleton in Peter F. Hamilton's novel Fallen Dragon, Jim Shooter's X-O Manowar comic book, and the Guyver Japanese animation series.
The first citable examples of powered suits were the Fat Man underwater suits (with mechanical pantograph arms and a propulsion system), which debuted in Tom Swift and His Jetmarine (1954). The powered suit of Robert A. Heinlein's 1959 novel Starship Troopers can be seen as spawning the entire sub-genre concept of military "powered armor". A Japanese animated version of Starship Troopers was produced by Sunrise with mechanical designs by Studio Nue, which presented a reasonable visual portrayal of how the suit operated (although the OAV story differed greatly from the Heinlein novel).
Science fiction authors utilize the idea of personal self-powered exoskeletons, usually referred to as powered armor or more commonly power armor. They are often robotic in nature. Examples include:
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In literature
The novel Starship Troopers details the tactics involved with powered armor. It was also apparently the first work of fiction that widely popularized the concept.
The security troops of the interstellar company Zantiu-Braun are described as wearing biological "Skin" armour in Peter Hamilton's novel Fallen Dragon.
Very advanced suits based on nanotechnology and a very advanced computer assistance system are depicted in Legacy of the Alldenata by John Ringo.
Armor by John Steakley, who admits that the work was inspired by Starship Troopers, features powered battle armor.
Dale Brown uses characters in many of his novels that wear a Tin man suit, which is a thin materal that has an electric charge that flows though it to protect the user from all but very large explosions and very large caliber rounds. He also writes about CID units which are Cybernetic Infantry Devices which are approximately 9 meters tall and the user climbs inside and uses some what like an ARMORED CORE unit.
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In comics and manga
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In Japanese manga Gantz, the characters wear a powered suit like exoskeleton, which gives them enormous strength and protection.
The webcomic Schlock Mercenary includes a variety of powered armor, ranging from 'mini-tanks' down through various sorts of articulated hardsuits, to the 'low-profile' carbonan fiber armor that is nearly indistinguishable from ordinary uniforms. All forms of power armor in the series to date has had some flight capacity, owing to the ubiquitous artificial gravity technology shown throughout the strip.
The Guyver is a biomechanical exo-suit from the long-running manga, anime and films of the same name in the franchise created by Yoshiki Takaya.
Yu Ominae in Spriggan uses the Armored Muscle Suit, which gives him 30x artificial strength and protection from bullets, fires, explosions and melee weapons.
During the Incredible Hulk's rampages , S.H.I.E.L.D is known to send HULKBUSTER units. "Hulkbuster" is also a famous Iron Man variant armor, actually an add-on to the famous Mark XI "Modular Armor".
In Alan Moore's Watchman Graphic Novel, the New Nite Owl built an Owl Themed ExoSkeleton. On its first test run it broke his arm and he never used it again.
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In television and film
In the movie Aliens (1986), mechanized exosuits are used in loading cargo for spaceships, as well as Ripley's duel with the queen alien. A military version of this loader can be seen in the video game Aliens versus Predator 2.
In the 1994 TV series M.A.N.T.I.S. (Mechanically Augmented Neuro-Transmitter Interactive System) Dr. Miles Hawkins, a paralyzed scientist portrayed by Carl Lumbly, creates a super-powered exoskeleton in order to walk again, but ends up using it for crimefighting.
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In animation
In the American action cartoon series Centurions, the Centurions used a uniform like powered exoframes with several hard points, which enabled them to be with merged with multiple weapon systems.
Exoskeletal vehicles named "E-frames" were one of the central aspects of the American animated television series Exosquad.
Exoskeletal suits named "EMACS" (Energized Monster Armed Containment Suit) or simply power suits were a standard weapon in the animated cartoon series Monster Force.
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In the robot/mecha subgenre of anime/manga
Japanese animation (anime) and comics (manga) often feature powered armor in one subgenre; both the subgenre and the suits are called "robots" in Japanese or "mecha" among English speakers. Most of these are not human-enhancing exoskeletons so much as human-operated robots. The distinction between the bigger robots/mecha and their smaller cousins (and likely progenitors), the powered armor suits, is blurred; according to one English definition, a mecha is piloted while a powered armor is worn. Anything large enough to have a cockpit where the pilot is seated is generally considered a mecha. In Japanese, both piloted robots and powered armor are considered robots. Both Masamune Shirow's "Landmates" featured prominently in Appleseed and the form-fitting "Hardsuits" of Bubblegum Crisis are examples of powered armor that is worn. Arguably, the best depiction of a modern, true powered armor system is from the "MADOX-01: Metal Skin Panic" one-shot OAV. Conversely, the "Armored Trooper" of Armored Trooper VOTOMS are an example of piloted powered armor-sized robots or mecha.
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In video games
In Terra Nova: Strike Force Centauri, a 1st person tactical game by Looking Glass Studios, powered armor is the centerpiece, featuring many types of powered armor and loadout combinations. Among those found in electronic games, Terra Nova's powered armor suits are also the ones most similar to the drop suits and powered armor found in Robert Heinlein's novel, Starship Troopers.
Gordon Freeman's Hazardous Environment (HEV) Suit from Half-Life and Half-Life 2 is an exoskeleton originally designed for working with hazardous materials, exploration and possibly combat due its projectile resistant active armour and weapons recognition systems.
The Half-life expansion pack Opposing force featured Adrian Shephard of the HECU wearing a Powered Combat Vest (PCV), designed as a high tech bullet proof vest to absorb the damage of attacks. It is assumed that in the story context this is a new or newly mainstream technology funded by the government for the military.
The Half-Life mod known as Natural Selection features a full armor suit, an advanced technology that Marines can acquire, which absorbs much damage for the wearer, is powered so the wearer maintains agility almost equal to an unencumbered person, and can be repaired when damaged.
The Half-Life 2 mod known as Dystopia features power armor for its Medium class, and complete exoskeletons for its Heavy class. Additionally, all classes can equip themselves with "leg boosters", which increase jump height and brace against high falls.
In Deus Ex, the Majestic 12 Commando units wear power armor (dubbed 'obsidian' armor by their creators) that is outfitted with two 7.62 mm machineguns and two rocket launchers.
Samus Aran from the Metroid series of video games wears an exoskeleton, the Power Suit designed by the Chozo and enhanced with an attached arm cannon, which grants her the ability to roll into a ball around 1 meter in diameter and/or perform very high spinning jumps. In addition, it allows her to survive almost indefinitely underwater, as well as in the vacuum of space. The suit is modular in design, allowing the incorporation of additional weapons detection equipment, movement enhancements, and protective shielding.
The Fallout computer role-playing game series is notable for its use of powered armors in retro-'50s style. It increases strength, such as the exoskeleton intended to do so in real life and has a counterpart which is more powerful than it, Advanced Power Armor. It is powered by a Micro-Fusion reactor. Power Armor in Fallout was the strongest armor, getting it ensured increased damage resistance and radiation/poison resistance. It weighed 85 pounds, though.
Warriors in the Tribes series have access to several types of powered armor.
The super-soldier Master Chief in the video game series Halo is clad in energy-shielded and strength-enhancing armored suit weighing nearly one thousand pounds, called the MJOLNIR battle armor, that can allow him to turn over armored vehicles, quickly dispatch foes in melee combat, and house starship-grade AI to allow him to override enemy electronic defenses. The character is so heavily associated with the suit that he is never depicted outside of the armor, though at both the end of Halo and the start of Halo 2, the Master Chief is helmetless, with his head offscreen.
Terran Marines from the game StarCraft wear powerful suits of power armor for protection. It allows both space and ground operations.
After extensive research, troops in the computer game X-Com have access to power armor that allows damage resistance and flight.
In the MMORPG Neocron 2 high level players have access to several types of power armor.
In the video game series Metal Gear Solid, the character Cyborg Ninja (Gray Fox) possesses a powerful exoskeleton which has stealth camouflage. Solidus in MGS2 and Raiden in MGS4 apparently use an exoskeleton as well. Not to mention the Metal Gear themselves, which could be considered an exoskeleton (mecha).
In Eugen System's RTS , Task Force Talon's signature unit is the SHIELD Unit (Super High Infantry ELectronic Defense Unit), which is a powered armor combat exoskeleton outfitted with a GAU-19 20 mm Vulcan Cannon and a Javelin Missile Launcher. These units have medium armor and used mostly as fast hit-and-run raiders that can take down helicopters in large groups, but do not fare too well against tanks and heavy artillery. They can be upgraded with a milimetric radar system to allow their pilots to detect stealth units.
Monolith Productions' first-person shooter F.E.A.R features an exoskeleton named the R.E.V.E. Power Armor. Arguably one of the game's most dangerous enemies, the R.E.V.E. is heavily armored and wields powerful weaponry such as rocket launchers and laser cannons, yet is almost as fast and manueverable as a standard human soldier.
In Crytek's Crysis, the protagonist, Jake, wears a US Military prototype "Nano Muscle Suit" allowing him to carry armor, use heavy weaponry, reduce noise output, increase speed and treat wounds out on the battlefield. These actions uses rechargeable energy reserves that power the suit.
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In other media
In the Battletech universe, genetically engineered Clan soldiers are bred for strength and other qualities to wear Elemental powered armor. Elemental armor also provides advanced medical technologies to keep the wearer alive in case of severe injury or trauma during combat. Following the Clan Invasion, many other governments began to deploy Battle Armoured suits, but often of lesser quality then the original Elemental Armour. Also, in MechAssault 2: Lone Wolf, there is an Elemental-like vehicle simply called "BattleArmor"
Powered armor is heavily used in science fiction role-playing games, such as Rifts, to allow weak and mundane humans to compete in combat with supernatural and super-powerful adversaries. Two common examples of Powered Armor (or just Power Armor) in that series are the 10 foot Glitter Boy, which is covered in a coat of mirror-like, laser-resistant alloys; and the jet flight capable Strategic Armor Military Assault Suit (commonly called the SAMAS or Sam).
Games Workshop´s science fiction universe Warhammer 40,000 includes Space Marines, Inquisitors, and Sisters of Battle, who wear advanced powered armor. Recently, Games Workshop created the Tau Race, which take clear visual inspiration from the Mecha genre in the models, their XV15/22/25 "Stealth" suits being a prime example of powered armour and their XV81/84/89 "Crisis" and XV88/88-2 "Broadside" suits falling somewhere between powered armour and mecha.
Privateer Press' Iron Kingdoms, the setting for the tabletop game Warmachine, includes Warcasters and characters that don suits of steam powered armor. The suits require coal to keep the furnace lit as well as water in their boiler. Additional components to the suits enable the user to perform alternate tasks such as channel spells, lift heavy weights, and perform field repairs. A newer more advanced version of the steam power armor is no longer powered by steam, instead it is powered by a "Storm Chamber", which provides electrical power to the suit.
In the storyline of Magic: The Gathering, the planeswalker Urza devises power armor for himself and several other planeswalkers in order to allow them to invade and survive Phyrexia.
Lego has recently (2006) brought out an "Exo-Force" line centering around mechas in a human/robot war. (The idea of a mech piloted by a robot may be a new one.)
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Other alternatives
An alternative sci-fi concept to the powered armor would be the skinsuit, a very thin (hence the name) and flexible powered armor variant. The skinsuit can be used as an environmental-protection suit, similar to spacesuit (for example, in the Honorverse universe), or may have some artificial muscle that increases strength, resistance and endurance, but in that case sacrifices environmental protection, sensory equipment, and built-in weaponry. The suits seen in the anime and manga versions of Spriggan and Gantz or skull suit from Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty would be prime example of this form of armor. The military uniforms in the webcomic Schlock Mercenary are almost universally skinsuits, utilizing buckminsterfullerene tubule-weave cloth and incorporating antigrav systems to allow a soldier flight capabilities.
As with powered exoskeletal armor, it is become apparent that even the skinsuit will become a possibility in the near future: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has reopened research into the space activity suit, a type of spacesuit that equalizes pressure through mechanical pressure as the suit with the breathing gas and DARPA is researching using carbon nanofiber tubes as artificial muscles for powered uniforms as opposed to an exoskeleton rig.
In Dan Simmons' Hyperion books, one of the protagonists is aided by a woman from the very distant future; she uses advanced technology to sheathe the character in an energy 'skinsuit' that not only acts as a powered body armor, but tends to injuries, allows the wearer to focus on objects with perfect clarity from many kilometers away, and allows the wearer to phase-shift into near-light speed in order to do combat. A person 'skinsuited' thus would appear to the viewer to be covered in a micrometres-thin layer of mercury.
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See also
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