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Texts and translations The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manusripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much before the late eighteenth. The first complete printed edition of the Canon was in 1900. The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West. English translations of most of the Canon are available from the Pali Text Society, founded by British civil servant T.W. Rhys Davids. Translations of some books are also available from other publishers. See below for details. Origins According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha's death to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. There are wide differences of opinion among scholars on to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself. Dr Richard Gombrich, Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society, thinks that the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes back to the Buddha himself. At the other extreme, Dr Gregory Schopen, Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin, argues that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries C.E. that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. Other scholars hold various positions in this range. Likewise, various positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. One school of thought gives this position to prose works: the Vinaya and the first four nikayas of the Sutta. Included in this school are the following: Gombrich; A. K. Warder, Professor Emeritus of Sanskrit in the University of Toronto; Dr Rupert Gethin, Lecturer in Indian Religions in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies, and co-director of the Centre for Buddhist Studies, at the University of Bristol, and current (2006) President of the Pali Text Society. On the other side, some scholars consider some of the poetic books the earliest: the Suttanipata, followed by the Itivuttaka and the Udana. These include the following: Professor Nakamura Hajime (surname first in accordance with Japanese practice); and Ui Hakuju. L. S. Cousins, former lecturer in the Department of Comparative Religion at Manchester University and former President of the Pali Text Society, holds a compromise position, adding the Suttanipata to the prose list. Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions. Contrariwise, some scholars have claimed that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier. According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagamiṇi) (last century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen questions this. Contents of the Canon As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas. Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature. Vinaya Pitaka Translation: The Book of the Discipline, tr I. B. Horner, 1938-66, 6 volumes, PTS The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts. Suttavibhanga Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered. Khandhaka Additional translation: Vinaya Texts, tr T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, Sacred Books of the East, volumes XIII, XVII and XX, 1881-5, Clarendon/Oxford, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi (? and by Dover, New York) Other rules grouped by topic Parivara Analysis of the rules from various points of view. Sutta Pitaka The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas. Digha Nikaya Translations: 34 long discourses. Joy Manné argues that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high propotions of debates and devotional material. Majjhima Nikaya Translations: 152 medium discourses. Manné argues that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations. Samyutta Nikaya Translations: Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bodhi says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine. Anguttara Nikaya Translation: The Book of the Gradual Sayings, tr F. L. Woodward and E. M. Hare, 1932-6, 5 volumes, PTS Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the prceding three. Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources, contains the following. However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical; see below. Khuddakapatha Translations: Nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices. Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon. Dhammapada Selected translations (out of dozens): 423 verses in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart before they can be ordained. In the Burmese examination system, this is the first text to be studied in the sutta section of the syllabus (alongside the Patimokkha and Abhidhammatthasangaha). Udana Translations: 80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the Buddha, with introductory stories. Itivuttaka Translations: 112 prose teachings of the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours. Suttanipata Translations: Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which last includes a little prose. Vimanavatthu Translations: 85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma. Petavatthu Translations: 51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts. Theragatha Translations: 264 poems ascribed to monks, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Therigatha 73 poems ascribed to nuns, arranged by increasing number of verses. Jataka Translation: The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, tr E. B. Cowell et al., Cambridge University Press, 1895-1907, 6 volumes; reissued in 3 volumes, PTS; this translation embeds the canonical verses in the stories given by the commentary 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor Oskar von Hinüber says only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible on their own. As a result of the arrangement, these make up the greater part of the book. Niddesa Commentary on parts of Suttanipata: the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sariputta. Patisambhidamagga Translation: The Path of Discrimination, tr Nanamoli, 1982, PTS 30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin says this book presents the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple, coherent whole. Apadana About 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others. The following have been translated into English. Buddhavamsa Translations: Short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives. Cariyapitaka Translations: 35 poems telling of the Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives. Paracanonical or semicanonical works The following works are sometimes included in editions of the canon. About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical. On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not. Nettipakarana Translation: The Guide, tr Nanamoli, 1962, PTS This book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana. Petakopadesa Translation: Pitaka-disclosure, tr Nanamoli, 1964, PTS Presents the same methods as the preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana. Milindapanha Translations: A dialogue between King Menander of Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose literature. Abhidhamma|Abhidhamma Pitaka The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey, Gethin. Cousins argues that there is an abhidhamma methodology, which must go back to the early period, and perhaps the Buddha himself. He says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. Dhammasangani Translations: Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas Vibhanga Translation: The Book of Analysis, tr U Thittila, 1969, PTS Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani Dhatukatha Translation: Discourse on elements, tr U Narada, 1962, PTS Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books Puggalapannatti Translations: Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens Kathavatthu Translation: Points of Controversy, tr S. Z. Aung and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1915, PTS Over 200 debates on points of doctrine Yamaka Translation published in Malaysia Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (Is X Y? Is Y X?) Patthana Translation in progress: Conditional Relations, volumes I and II, tr U Narada, 1969-81, PTS Analysis of 24 types of condition The Canon in the tradition The Canon is traditionally described as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples. An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries are useful in understanding it and faithful to its teachings but not infallible. Commentaries on most of the Canon were written down from oral tradition at the same time as the Canon itself, but in Sinhalese, not Pali. They were edited and translated into Pali in the fourth or fifth century, traditionally by Buddhaghosa, though his authorship of some has been questioned by some scholars; later writers produced commentaries on other parts of the Canon, and also subcommentaries on commentaries. Buddhaghosa also produced the classic summary of the traditional understanding of the Canon, the Visuddhimagga. For more information, see John Bullitt's "Beyond the Tipitaka: A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature" (2002)*. Notes See also English translations Other | |||||||||
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