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Overview
Types of meditation According to Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes (2000), the different techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. Some focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called mindfulness; others focus on a preselected specific object, and are called "'concentrative' meditation." There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object. Categorizing the varieties of meditation is difficult. One common way is according to religion or lineage. But some meditative traditions, such as yoga or tantra, are common to several religions or occur outside religious contexts. Therefore, to avoid controversy, this article will not attempt to classify all meditations into a religious class or lineage. Baháí Faith The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote: "Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."* Although the Founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified a particular form of meditation, some Bahá'í practices bring about a meditative state. One of these practices is the daily obligatory chanting of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times, which is preceded by ablutions. This is similar to the Sufi practice of chanting the names of God. The word Abhá comes from the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God". Also, many of the prayers and Tablets of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh are intended to bring about a meditative or ecstatic state on the part of the participant. These writings often contain a phrase extolling God or listing several of His names and attributes, which are repeated over and over again throughout the text. For example, in the Long Healing Prayer, almost every verse is followed by "Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, O Thou Abiding One". In the Tablet of the Holy Mariner, every phrase is followed by "Glorified be my Lord, the All-Glorious!" Buddhism Meditation has always enjoyed a central place within Buddhism. The Buddha himself was said to have achieved enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Most forms of Buddhism distinguish between shamatha and vipassana meditation, both of which are necessary for enlightenment. The former consists of learning to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter involves seeing the true nature of reality. Theravada Buddhism emphasizes vipassana meditation directed towards anapana, mettā bhāvanā, or 38 other traditional topics (see: Kammatthana). In Japanese Mahayana schools, Tendai (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese Chan Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese Zen, and Korean Seon schools), ts'o ch'an meditation and koan meditation practices are extremely important, allowing a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of reality (each of the names of these schools derives from the sanskrit dhyana, and translates into "meditation" in their respective languages). The esoteric Shingon sect shares many features with Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism emphasizes tantra for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of Vajrayana Buddhism. However, visitors to Tibetan monasteries are often surprised to discover that many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy. Christianity Christian traditions have various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation." Many of these are monastic practices. Some types of prayer, such as the rosary and Adoration (focusing on the eucharist) in Catholicism or the hesychasm in Eastern Orthodoxy, may be compared to the form of Eastern meditation that focuses on an individual object. Christian meditation is considered a form of prayer. Some Chrisitan prayer is made primarily by using the intellect, through the contemplation of the divine mysteries. However, Christian prayer or meditation through the heart, as described in the Philokalia is a practice towards Theosis, which involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. According to the Old Testament book of Joshua, a form of meditation is to meditate on scriptures. This is one of the reasons why bible verse memory is a practice among many evangelical Christians. "Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful." (Joshua 1:8) Gnostic (Modern) The modern Gnostic movement counts millions of students in non-English speaking countries and is only now becoming known in English. Gnosis is Greek for "knowledge," but indicates personal, experiential knowledge rather than mere belief or theory. As such, meditation techniques are of primary importance, because it is through meditation that any person can acquire their own personal, experiential knowledge of the mysteries of life and death. There is an enormous range of techniques taught within the Gnostic tradition, ranging from basic concentration practices to very abstract and skillful techniques similar to the highest forms of Zen and Vajrayana Buddhism. Each has its place in the progressive development of the individual. Jainism The Jains called the practice of meditation Samayika, a word in Prakrit language. The aim of Samayika is to transcend our daily experiences as the "constantly changing" human beings, called Jiva, and allow identification with the "changeless" reality in us, called the Atma. One begins in Samayika by achieving a balance in time. If the present fine moment of time could be defined as the moving line between the past and the future, Samayika happens by being fully aware, alert and conscious in that moving timeline when one experiences one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. The Samayika is derived from the word samay - meaning time - in the Prakrit language. The Samayika takes on special significance during special 8-day period practiced by the Jains called Paryushana. Hinduism There are several types of meditation in Hinduism These include (but are not limited to): Islam Within Islam, the term "meditation" refers to the Salat performed 5 times a day. This is a spiritual process of focusing the mind and heart on Allah. There is also the act of deep detailed contemplation (tafakkur) commanded in the Qur'an. Judaism The concept of Jewish meditation, in Hebrew called hitbodeidut or hisbodeidus is explained in Kabbalah and Hassidic philosophy. The word hisbodedut, which derives from the Hebrew word "boded", בודד (a state of being alone) and claimed to be related to the sfirah of Binah (lit. understanding), means the process of making oneself understand a concept well through analytical study. Kabbalah is inherently a meditative field of study. Kabbalistic meditative practices construct a supernal realm which the soul navigates through in order to achieve certain ends. One of the most well known types of meditation is /Merchava/, from the root /R-Ch B/ meaning "chariot"(of God). Sikhism In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō encourage quiet meditation. Taoism Taoism includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have their principles described in the I Ching, Tao Te Ching, Chuang Tzu and Tao Tsang among other texts; the multitude of schools relating to Qigong, Neigong, Daoyin and Zhan zhuang are a large, diverse array of breath training practises in aid of meditation with much influence from later Chinese Buddhism and with much influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese as well as some Japanese martial arts. The Chinese martial art T'ai Chi Ch'uan is named after the well-known focus for Taoist and Neo-Confucian meditation, the T'ai Chi T'u, and is often referred to as “meditation in motion”. New Age New Age meditations are influenced by Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. Examples of such meditations include: Active/Dynamic Meditation Osho, earlier named Rajneesh, invented radically new meditation techniques, which he termed Active Meditations, which begin with a stage of activity — sometimes intense and physical — followed by a period of silence. He emphasized that meditation is not concentration. Dynamic meditation involves a conscious catharsis where one can throw out all the repressions, express what is not easily expressible in society, and then easily go into silence. Some of his techniques also have spontaneous dance as a step into. Also the Thai monk Luang Por Teean taught a (more conservative) form of dynamic meditation, involving the use of the hands and arms during sitting meditation. He also used walking meditation as a complementary method. His teaching was aimed at developing awareness of the movements of the arms, which are moved continuously in a certain pattern throughout the meditation. The awareness is, however, not limited to the arms but inclusive of the whole life-experience. This type of dynamic meditation is a type of vipassana meditation, which is popular in Thailand, and is becoming more well known in the western countries, too. Secular Forms of meditation which are devoid of mystical content have been developed in the west as a way of promoting physical and mental well being. Most notable is Autogenic training developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. The 1999 book The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism by Paul Wilson is a discussion and instruction in one form of secular meditation. A non-profit secular organisation, Acem School of Meditation, was started by Are Holen in 1966. Its focus is on relaxation and stress relief. Acoustic and photic Newer forms of meditation are based on the results of EEG work in long term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a frequency-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz the resulting measured EEG will show a 5 Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols. • • Meditation in context Most traditions address the integration of mind, body, and spirit (this is a major theme of the Bhagavad-Gita); or that of spiritual practice with family life, work, and so on. Often, meditation is said to be incomplete if it doesn't lead to positive changes in one's daily life and attitudes. In that spirit some Zen practitioners have promoted "Zen driving," aimed at reducing road rage. Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully. Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations. Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle. Many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. Some traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice: Sufi poets (e.g. Rumi, Hafiz) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam*. Most meditative traditions discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism, which have a long tradition of hashish or marijuana-using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which use peyote, ayahuasca, or other restricted substances in a religious setting. A number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, and so on, in a lineage. Most Chinese traditions rely on the Confucian concept of a Sifu. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit guru, Tibetan lama). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek gerontas, Russian starets); Catholic religious have spiritual directors. The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates, and others offer instructions for an altar or other accessories. Physical postures
Common Postures Seated posture:Person can use any chair, stool, bench, anything that has a horizontal top, so that he or she may sit on it. The person sits up, with their back straight, and holds their head and spine in alignment. They rest their hands comfortably on their knees or arms of chair. Their thighs should be parallel to the floor while the person's back does not lean against the back of the chair. Cross legged posture:Person crosses legs while seated on the floor (and on a cushion, if it is more comfortable) and unless skilled at yoga, does not attempt to rest feet on their thighs (like Indian yogis do). The person sits upright, back straight, and with their head and spine in alignment. Hands may rest in any position. Kneeling posture:Person kneels on the floor with their knees together, buttocks resting on their heels and toes almost touching. They keep their back straight, head and spine in alignment, and rest their hands on their thighs. Lying down posture:This is the savasna, or the corpse posture in yoga. Person lies down on a carpet, and makes sure legs are straight but relaxed. Normally, it is seldom used because it mimics natural sleeping postures, making it very easy to fall asleep while trying to meditiate. It is often regarded as more effective as a stress reducer rather than in the meditation process. Frequency and duration These vary so greatly that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, one-minute meditations are not out of the question. Twenty or thirty minutes is broadly accepted as being a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial. Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance. Also, many meditators stress the importance of continual practice in order to strengthen concentration for prolonged meditation sessions as well as increased focus during their daily lives. The use of symbols in Meditation The use of symols in meditation is not unusual in beliefs such as Taoism. Those symbols may have different meanings. However, those symbols are believed to have practical effects. They are believed to be able to draw different energies from universe into the bodies of the practitioner in order to transform or awaken his/her hidden senses. Using symbol properly is said to enhance the speed of awakening hidden senses. In addition to this, some symbols can also be used to clean the energy around our environment or protect us from negative influences. Purposes and effects of meditation The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's God. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation. Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation — sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God or from the Holy Spirit/Ghost, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator alone, just as some say that a person will not convert to Christianity without the influence of the Holy Spirit/Ghost's presence. At the same time, many effects (or perhaps side-effects) have been experienced during, or claimed for, various types of meditation. These include: Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, Mahayana Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the bodhisattva vow). Some, as in certain sects of Christianity, say that these things are possible, but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of God. Health applications and clinical studies of meditation In the recent years there has been a growing interest within the medical community to study the physiological effects of meditation (Venkatesh et al., 1997; Peng et al., 1999; Lazar et al., 2000; Carlson et.al, 2001). Many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on somatic motor function as well as cardiovascular and respiratory function. Also the hermeneutic and phenomenological aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest. Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress and pain reduction. For example, in an early study in 1972, transcendental meditation was shown to affect the human metabolism by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as lactate, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure and inducing favorable brain waves. (Scientific American 226: 84-90 (1972)). In 1976, the Australian psychiatrist Ainslie Meares, reported in the Medical Journal of Australia, the regression of cancer following intensive meditation. Meares would go on to write a number of books, including his best-seller Relief without Drugs. As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed immune system. There is a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the establishment by the NIH in the U.S. of 5 research centers to research the mind-body aspects of disease.) Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, reported that Zen meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book Zen and the Brain (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using functional MRI imaging which examine the electrical activity of the brain. Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response" (Lazar et.al, 2003). The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains. Other studies within this field include the research of Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts who have studied the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress (Kabat-Zinn et.al, 1985; Davidson et.al, 2003). Meditation and the brain Mindfulness meditation and related techniques are intended to train attention for the sake of provoking insight. Think of it as the opposite of attention deficit disorder. A wider, more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation, easier to be objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations, and easier to achieve a state of responsive, creative awareness or "flow". One theory, presented by Daniel Goleman & Tara Bennett-Goleman (2001), suggests that meditation works because of the relationship between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. In very simple terms, the amygdala is the part of the brain that decides if we should get angry or anxious (among other things), and the pre-frontal cortex is the part that makes us stop and think about things (it is also known as the inhibitory centre). So, the prefrontal cortex is very good at analyzing and planning, but it takes a long time to make decisions. The amygdala, on the other hand, is simpler (and older in evolutionary terms). It makes rapid judgments about a situation and has a powerful effect on our emotions and behaviour, linked to survival needs. For example, if a human sees a lion leaping out at them, the amygdala will trigger a fight or flight response long before the prefrontal cortex responds. But in making snap judgments, our amygdalas are prone to error, such as seeing danger where there is none. This is particularly true in contemporary society where social conflicts are far more common than encounters with predators, and a basically harmless but emotionally charged situation can trigger uncontrollable fear or anger — leading to conflict, anxiety, and stress. Because there is roughly a quarter of a second gap between the time an event occurs and the time it takes the amygdala to react, a skilled meditator may be able to intervene before a fight or flight response takes over, and perhaps even redirect it into more constructive or positive feelings. The different roles of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex can be easily observed under the influence of various drugs. Alcohol depresses the brain generally, but the sophisticated prefrontal cortex is more affected than less complex areas, resulting in lowered inhibitions, decreased attention span, and increased influence of emotions over behaviour. Likewise, the controversial drug Ritalin has the opposite effect, because it stimulates activity in the prefrontal cortex. Some studies of meditation have linked the practice to increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex, which is associated with concentration, planning, meta-cognition (thinking about thinking), and positive affect (good feelings). There are similar studies linking depression and anxiety with decreased activity in the same region, and/or with dominant activity in the right prefrontal cortex. Meditation increases activity in the left prefrontal cortex, and the changes are stable over time — even if you stop meditating for a while, the effect lingers. Meditation and EEG Electroencephalograph (EEG) recordings of skilled meditators showed a significant rise in gamma wave activity in the 80 to 120 Hz range during meditation. There was also a rise in the range of 25 to 42 Hz. These meditators had 10 to 40 years of training in Buddhist-based mental training. EEG done on meditators who had received recent training demonstrated considerably less rise. The experienced meditators also showed increased gamma activity while at rest and not meditating. During meditation there is a modest increase in slow alpha or theta wave EEG activity. Chang and Lo found different results. First they classify five patterns in meditation based on the normal four frequency ranges (delta < 4Hz, theta 4 to <8Hz, alpha 8 to 13Hz, and beta >13Hz). The five patterns they found were: 1) delta 2) delta + theta 3) theta + slow alpha 4) high-amplitude alpha 5) amplitude suppressed ("silent and almost flat") They found pattern 1) extremely low power (significant suppression of EEG amplitude) 2) corresponding temporal patterns with no particular EEG rhythm 3) no dominating peak in the spectral distribution They had collected EEG patterns from more than 50 meditators over the prior five years. Five meditation EEG scenarios are then described. They further state that most meditation is dominated by alpha waves. They found delta and theta waves occurred occasionally, sometimes while people fell asleep and sometimes not. In particular they found the amplitude suppressed pattern correlated with "the feeling of blessings." Adverse effects Predominantly, studies of meditation report positive effects. However, some studies report that meditation may have adverse effects in certain circumstances (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, 1998; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). If practiced improperly or too intensely, meditation can lead to considerable psychological and physiological problems. Serious and credible teachers of meditation usually warn their students about the possible pitfalls of a contemplative path (Trungpa, 1973). Another issue concerns the adaptation of eastern meditative concepts to a western culture, an adaptation that is often unfamiliar with the cultural matrix in which the meditative concept originated. Eastern concepts of meditation are often imported to a western setting within the popular context of new religious movements, or within the context of popular approaches to body and health. It is common for this popular context to be unfamiliar with the broad range of adverse effects that might occur during meditation, and to have limited tools for dealing with them when they do arise. Since the practice of meditation may include a powerful confrontation with existential questions, it is not considered wise to engage in intense meditation techniques without an extended period of psychological preparation, preferably in contact with a credible teacher or clinician. In the case of Asian contemplative traditions (Hindu, Buddhist), which has often originated within a monastic or reclusive context, there often exist major challenges connected to the way the particular meditation techniques are to be applied to a Western mindset without causing harm to the practitioner, for example passivity. A growing body of clinical literature is now starting to address the phenomenon of meditation-related problems (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, 1998; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). Several side-effects have been reported, including uncomfortable kinesthetic sensations, mild dissociation and psychosis-like symptoms (Craven, 1989). From a clinical study of twenty-seven long term meditators, Shapiro (1992) reported such adverse effects as depression, relaxation-induced anxiety and panic, paradoxical increases in tension, impaired reality testing, confusion, disorientation and feeling 'spaced out'. The possibility that meditation might trigger strong emotional reactions is also reported by Kutz, Borysenko & Benson (1985). Therefore, meditation might cause serious side effects, even among long-term practitioners, and might even, in some instances, be contraindicated. The tendency of meditation to release unconscious material (Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000) implies that the beginning meditator should approach the practice with moderation. Particularly in the Chinese Qigong tradition, stories of unguided practitioners or inexpertly guided students developing chronic mental and physical health problems as a result of their attempts at meditation training are not uncommon. English speaking practitioners and teachers of Qigong and related disciplines note that the practice of this contemplative exercise is sometimes accompanied by physical and psychological distress. The identification of this syndrome has led to the inclusion of a culture-sensitive category in the DSM-IV called Qi-Gong Psychotic Reaction (American Psychiatric Association, 1994: Appendix 1). Meditative traditions which include the use of drugs are generally considered to be harmful to the practitioner. Additionally, as with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may be helpful to apply mindful attitudes acquired in meditation while actively engaging with current problems (see Hayes et al, 1999, chap. 3; Metzner, 2005). Meditation and drugs Some modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with the use of some drugs. However, the use of stimulants has been proposed by some as a means to provide insight, and in some shamanistic traditions they are used as agents of ritual. Some Native American traditions for instance emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing tobacco, salvia divinorum or other plants. Some Hindu traditions use bhang, East Asian traditions use tea and Middle Eastern (and many Western) religions use coffee as an aid to meditation. During the 1960s, eastern meditation traditions and LSD became popular among many people, and many people suggested that LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end. However, many people who had already been familiar with eastern traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The Master Game, de Ropp said that the door to full consciousness could be glimpsed through with the aid of substances -- which is doubted by many others -- yet to pass beyond the door required yoga and meditation. Notable Quotes about Meditation "So, to meditate is to purge the mind of its self-centered activity. And if you have come this far in meditation, you will find there is silence, a total emptiness. The mind is uncontaminated by society; it is no longer subject to any influence, to the pressure of any desire. It is completely alone, and being alone, untouched it is innocent. Therefore there is a possibility for that which is timeless, eternal, to come into being. This whole process is meditation." -- Jiddu Krishnamurti See also Notes | |||||||||||||
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