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Lebanon, officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: ), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. The flag of Lebanon features the Lebanon Cedar in green against a white backdrop, with two horizontal red stripes on the top and bottom. Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed remarkable prosperity. It was considered the banking capital of the Arab world and attracted large numbers of tourists. However, the commencement of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict on July 12, 2006 brought mounting civilian and military casualties, great damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement. As of September 2006, the Lebanese government has been acting out an early recovery plan aimed at reconstructing destroyed property in Beirut, Tyre, and other villages in southern Lebanon.
Etymology The name Lebanon ("Lubnan" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk. This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. In British English, the country is sometimes referred to with the definite article as "the Lebanon", like the Sudan, the Ukraine, or the Gambia. Prepending a "the" to the name possibly results from the fact that when these names came into usage, they were merely geographical regions, rather than independent states. Geography and climate A Middle Eastern country, Lebanon is bordered by the Mediterranean to the west with a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanese-Syrian border stretches for 375 kilometers while the Lebanese-Israeli border is 79 kilometers in length. The border with Israel has been approved by the United Nations (see Blue Line), although a small piece of land called Shebaa Farms located in the Golan Heights, occupied by Israel, is claimed by Lebanon. Lebanon has a total area of 10,452 km² (4,035 mi²) which places it as the 178th largest country in the world. Most of that area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which constitutes an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture. Lebanon has a moderate four-season Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 0 °C during the winter with frequent—sometimes heavy—snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall. This is due to the region's proximity to dry areas in Syria and to the fact that the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea. Administrative divisions
Demographics The population of Lebanon is composed of three predominant ethnic groups and religions: Muslims (Shi'ites, Sunnis, and Alawites), Druze, and Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics). No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. It is estimated that about 40% are Christians, 25% are Shia Muslims, 30% are Sunni Muslims and 5% are Druze . A minority of Jews live in central Beirut, Byblos, and Bhamdoun. Also, a small community (less than 1%) of Kurds (also known as Mhallamis or Mardins) live in Lebanon. The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper is estimated at 3.8 million. There are approximately 15 million people of Lebanese descent, spread all over the world, Brazil being the country with the biggest Lebanese community abroad. Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela and the US also have large Lebanese communities. About 360,000 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948. Estimates of those remaining range between 180,000 and 250,000. The Palestinians have indeed become a vital part of the Lebanese society, with many of them reaching high posts, despite the notorious governmental bans on them. It is not only impossible for them to own properties, but until 2005 there were an estimated 46 jobs that they were not allowed to practice in Lebanon. In recent years the idea of granting Palestinians Lebanese citizenship has been discussed; however this notion has been rejected by most of the Lebanese and Palestinian communities. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe from North and South America to Europe, the Persian Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations. A major ignominy of Lebanon's social system and laws is that when a child is born to one Lebanese parent, that Lebanese child receives Lebanese citizenship only if the father is Lebanese. Citizenship rights are denied to a child born to a Lebanese mother. Such gender discrimination in a country where mothers are predominantly the main care providers for children has disenfranchised children of Lebanese descent for many generations. Economy Agriculture Although ideally suited for agricultural activities (in terms of water availability and soil fertility), Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce, agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Industry Lebanon's lack of industry raw material and complete dependency on Arab countries for oil has made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mostly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and also second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP. Services and Commerce A combination of beautiful climate and many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites has continually attracted large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP. The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade. Historical development of the Lebanese economy The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Until the 2006 Israel-Lebanon war, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 70 billion dollars. Even though Lebanon was down 10% in the tourism sector in 2005, more than 1.2 million tourists visited Lebanon that year. Market capitalization was also at an all time high, amounting to over $7 billion at the end of January 2006. The onset of the 2006 July-August war resulted in severe damage to Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on August 30, 2006, a major economic decline is expected as a result of the Israel-Lebanon war of July-August 2006. Beirut International airport re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million. Education History of education in Lebanon The first two ministries to be established for education in Lebanon were the Ministry of Education and Higher Education, and the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, to enrich the Lebanese educational system. In 1946, after independence (26 November, 1941) the Lebanese government replaced the old curriculum program, coming from the French mandate, by new ones and the Arabic language was imposed upon all schools as a primary language, mandatory in the different phases of education. The government also left students the freedom to choose a second or third language (French, English, etc…). Then in 1968 and 1971, the curriculum was changed again. Each step of the educational phases was specified with a defined goal and the contents of the public examinations were also particularized. Before the war, in 1975, Lebanon held one of the highest literacy rates in the Arab world. Over 80% of the Lebanese people could read and write. But ever since then, Lebanon has been in a state of chaos that has consumed its people, due to the civil war and foreign intervention that took place. When the war was declared ‘over’, the Lebanese took a start on rebuilding their cultural society in the educational domain and encouraging education through free and facilitated methods. Lebanon now sports a literacy rate of 88.3%, still among the highest in the Arab World. Schools in Lebanon Lebanese schools are divided into three categories: private, public, and mid-private. Public schools are under government authority (Ministry of Education) and free, supported by tax money. The Ministry of Education provides all the public schools with the books needed for each educational level, for negligible prices and often for free. Mid-private schools, mainly parochial schools, such as the Ecoles des Saint Coeurs, are those that operate as private schools yet charge fees close to those of public schools. The rest of the tuition fee is subsidized by the government. All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. Computer lessons, for example, are now very common in many schools although they are not a part of the traditional mandatory curriculum. For the schools without computer facilities, any student interested may take up computer courses at private institutions or centers available in almost all the Lebanese districts. Public schools altogether amount to a total of 192 high schools and 1,125 elementary schools. Of the high schools, 16 are strictly for boys, 12 are girl schools, and 164 are mixed. In the elementary school, a total of 238,556 students are enrolled and taught by 24,463 teachers. In all the schools, pupils receive their instructions from the teachers of each subject taught and not one classroom teacher. The number of students per classroom ranges between 15 in selective private schools and 40 in some public schools due to the lack of teachers and facilities. Curriculum in Lebanese schools The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French/English/both. Other rotating teachers within the school teach Physical education, Art, and library use (not available in all). The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study 18 different subjects. The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": Sciences or Humanities, and 12th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences (SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade. Students go through three academic phases: These three phases are provided free to all students and are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, the compulsory part is currently not fully enforced. There are plans to change this in the near future. Universities and colleges Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, an institute, or a "high technical school". The number of years to complete each program varies. Lebanon has 21 universities of which the American University of Beirut (AUB) the Lebanese American University and Notre Dame University (NDU) are internationally recognized. AUB was the first English university to open in Lebanon, while the first French university to open was the Université Saint Joseph. The 21 universities, both public and private, largely operate in Arabic, French, or English as these are the most widely used languages in Lebanon. There are 4 French institutions, 7 English, and 1 Armenian. Generally, these schools also teach in Arabic as it is the most commonly spoken language, yet the official language of each university is used as a basis for its programs. At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II . Culture Lebanon has been a major crossroads of civilizations for millennia, so it is not surprising that this small country possesses an extraordinarily rich and vibrant culture. Lebanon's wide array of ethnic and religious groups contributes to the country's rich cuisine, musical and literary traditions, and festivals. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces. Lebanese society is modern, educated, and perhaps comparable to European societies of the Mediterranean. Most Lebanese are bilingual, speaking Arabic and French, this is why Lebanon is a member state of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie; however, English has become popular, especially among university students. The country is not only where Christianity intermingles with Islam, but Lebanon is also an Arab gateway to Europe and a European bridge to the Arab world. Lebanon also hosts several prestigious universities, including the Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, the Université Saint-Joseph, and the Lebanese American University. Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Politics Lebanon is a republic in which the three highest offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups: This arrangement is part of the "National Pact" (Arabic: الميثاق الوطني - al Mithaq al Watani), an unwritten agreement which was established in 1943 during meetings between Lebanon's first president (a Maronite) and its first prime minister (a Sunni), although it was not formalized in the Lebanese Constitution until 1990, following the Taif Agreement. The pact included a promise by the Christians not to seek French protection and to accept Lebanon's "Arab face", and a Muslim promise to recognize independence and legitimacy of the Lebanese state in its 1920 boundaries and to renounce aspirations for union with Syria. This pact was thought at the time to be an interim compromise, necessary until Lebanon formed its own sense of a national identity. The pact might have been a temporary solution as Muslims still continued to feel a strong sense of need to unite with their Arab counterparts. The Christians, on the other hand, rejected this and, in an attempt to gain support, they later suggested federalism, and formed an alliance with Israel. Lebanon's continued existence and the fallout from subsequent civil wars continue to dominate politics in Lebanon. The pact also stipulated that seats in the Parliament would be allocated by religion and region, in a ratio of 6 Christians to 5 Muslims, a ratio based on the 1932 census, which was taken at a time when Christians still had a slight majority. The Taif Agreement adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. Today, Muslims are a majority, especially when taking the Palestinian presence to be a factor, but most sides in Lebanon are still satisfied with the equality. The Constitution grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years. The last parliament election came after the assassination of PM Rafiq Hariri, and saw a stern shift in Lebanese powers as Syrian opposers won the majority of the seats. The parliament composition is based more on ethnic and religious identities as opposed to ideological features. The Taif Accord ending the civil war modified the distribution of parliament seats. The Parliament elects the President of the republic to a six-year term. Consecutive terms for the president are forbidden. This constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad-hoc amendment twice in recent history, however, at the urging of the Syrian government. Elias Hrawi's term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure was repeated in 2004 to allow Emile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007. Pro-democracy campaigners denounced the moves. The last presidential election was in 1998. The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the Parliament. Lebanon has numerous political parties, but their role is less important than in most parliamentary systems. Most represent, in practice if not in theory, sectarian interests; many are little more than ad-hoc lists of candidates endorsed by a well-known national or local figure. Electoral tickets are often formed on a constituency-by-constituency basis by negotiation among local leaders of clans, religious groups, and political parties; these loose coalitions generally exist only for the election and rarely form cohesive blocs in the Parliament subsequently. Currently, Lebanon's Parliament is split into roughly three alliances: the generally anti-Syrian March 14 Alliance, the pro-Syrian alliance consisting primarily of Hezbollah and Amal and the bloc of Maronite former General Michel Aoun, recently allied with Hezbollah. Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels - courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. * These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously falling short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians". * History
Cedar Revolution Note: International media coined the term "Cedar Revolution", but Lebanese media also uses the term "Intifada (uprising) of Independence." Assassinations
Demonstrations On February 28, 2005, with over 70,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned. In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration of nearly 1 million people. Protestors marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony. In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts demonstrate the danger of Lebanon relapsing into sectarian strife. Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria withdrew its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. The last Syrian uniformed soldier left Lebanon on April 26, 2005. On April 27, 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces led by Senegalese Brig Gen Mouhamadou Kandji were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by UN Security Council Resolution 1559. Elections During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The Free Patriotic Movement however, did not ally with the Rafik Harir Martyr list during these elections because they were seen by some as still attached to their sectarian identities. Thus the FPM won a minority of seats in the parliament. The combinations were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and others with Amal. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafic Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of retired army general Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. General Aoun was previously known for his anti-Syrian sentiment, Aoun aligned with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Their alliance dominated the north and the Metn District of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Joumblat joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Bekaa, and Baabda-Aley district of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary. On February 6, 2006, Hezbollah signed an understanding of disarmament with Michel Aoun the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament. On July 18, 2005, Lebanon has a newly elected parliament which is dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Émile Lahoud the next day. The following months proved the government's inability to begin the economic and political reforms promised to the people. 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict Major events On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah's capture of two Israeli soldiers in a cross-border operation and the killing of 8 more soldiers in that operation was considered by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert "an act of war". That night, Israel authorized a massive military operation on Lebanon, with an ultimate goal of eliminating Hezbollah and retrieving the captured soldiers. The operation quickly developed into "open war" as Israel continued to bomb large areas in Lebanon and Hezbollah launched thousands of rockets into Northern Israel. Diplomatic action eventually resulted in the release of UN Security Council Resolution 1701 which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities, the unconditional return of the two kidnapped Israeli soldiers, and an international embargo on supplying arms to Hezbollah. Three days later, on August 14, 2006, the partial cease-fire came into effect, and both sides heaved a sigh of relief as Israel put an end to its bombing campaign and Hezbollah stopped launching rockets into Northern Israel. However, Israel continued to impose a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon, in an attempt to prevent arms from reaching Hezbollah. By September 8, 2006, both blockades had been lifted. During and after that period, several breaches of the cease-fire were recorded. Aftermath The level of destruction that hit Lebanon has been described by the country's Prime Minister Fouad Siniora as "unimaginable." Much of Lebanon's infrastructure was destroyed, mainly bridges and roads, and estimates of the overall damage approach $15 billion *. 1,187 Lebanese civilians were killed and about 4,080 were injured. Over one million Lebanese were displaced and forced to flee to safer areas. One hundred and sixty Israelis were killed and 800 injured. Of the 160 killed Israelis, 44 were civilians. Many countries have provided much-needed aid to Lebanon. Major contributors include Saudi Arabia, Jordan, the European Union, the United Arab Emirates, and Egypt among others. During the war, the Jordanians helped by loading planes with about 67,500 blankets and mattresses as well as boxes of drugs and food. Sea routes were used to bring in supplies in large quantities to help some of the displaced people living in schools and with host families in Lebanon. In response to the growing international pressure for disarming Hezbollah, Hassan Nasrallah, the leader of Hezbollah, held a "victory celebration" in southern Beirut on September 22, 2006, which was attended by hundreds of thousands in a show of support to the continuing resistance. During the proceedings, Nasrallah proclaimed that no one would "ever disarm" Hezbollah and vowed to take action in retaliation for what he described as Israeli hostilities. 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