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Jihad, sometimes spelled Jahad, Jehad, Jihaad, Djehad, Jawwad, or Cihad, ( ) is an Islamic term, from the Arabic root ("to exert utmost effort, to strive, struggle"), which connotes a wide range of meanings: anything from an inward spiritual struggle to attain perfect faith to a political or military struggle. Individuals involved in the political or military forms of jihad are often labeled with the neologism "jihadist" or "jihadi".
The term "jihad" is often used to describe purely physical and military "religious war", through physical struggle. Muslim scholars say that this only makes up part of the broader meaning of the concept of jihad. The denotation is of a struggle, challenge, difficulty or (frequently) opposed effort, made either in accomplishment or as resistance. A person who engages in any form of jihad can be called a mujahid (in plural: mujahidin) (Arabic: striver, struggler). Such a person might engage in fighting as a military struggle for religious reasons, or for example, struggle to memorize the Qur'an. Jihad has gained a negative connotation and reputation in much of the West because of its usage by various groups classified by the United States of America as terrorist organizations as part of its War on terror. The Jihad had a reputation for this at the time.
According to an Alt.muslim article, the term in Islamic law that describes the activities of al Qaeda more accurately than then term "Jihad" is "hirabah" (adjective: hirabi), which has a more general meaning of "sinful warfare".
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Classifications of Jihad by Muslims
Jihad has been classified either as al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (nafs), or al-jihād al-asghar (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.
Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God):•
Jihad of the heart/soul (jihad bin nafs/qalb) is an inner struggle of good against evil in the mind, through concepts such as tawhid.
Jihad by the tongue (jihad bil lisan) is a struggle of good against evil waged by writing and speech, such as in the form of dawah (proselytizing), Khutbas (sermons), et al.
Jihad by the pen and knowledge (jihad bil qalam/ilm) is a struggle for good against evil through scholarly study of Islam, ijtihad (legal reasoning), and through sciences (such as medical sciences).
Jihad by the hand (jihad bil yad) refers to a struggle of good against evil waged by actions or with one's wealth, such as going on the Hajj pilgrimage (seen as the best jihad for women), taking care of elderly parents, providing funding for jihad, political activity for furthering the cause of Islam, stopping evil by force, or espionage.
Jihad by the sword (jihad bis saif) refers to qital fi sabilillah (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war).
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Greater and lesser Jihad
Nearly all Muslims believe that the non-military jihad is the "greater jihad" and the military jihad is the "lesser jihad." The Sufis as well as the traditions of Hadith (sayings of the Holy Prophet) are particularly known for supporting this tradition, though some Sufis prefer to use the Arabic word mujahada instead of "greater jihad."
Islamic scholar Gibril Haddad has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the greater jihad. ("Jihad al-akbar"). Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded hadeeth, in which Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against unbelievers to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Koran and other writings.••
As stated, the validity of those hadeeth is disputed, especially by Western Orientalists and Islamic Fundamentalists- other hadeeth indicate that violent jihad is the greater of the two, and Islamic scholar and alleged founder of Salafi thought, Ibn Taymiyya, famously criticized some of the non-violent hadeeth and went so far as to say that "Jihad against the disbelievers is the most noble of actions, and moreover it is the most important action for the sake of mankind.".
However, Ibn Taymiyya also made statements supporting the concept of internal struggle as the greater jihad. Near the end of Rawdat al-Muhibbin, Ibn al-Qayyim quotes Taymiyya as follows: "I heard our Shaykh say, 'The jihad of "nafs" (the inner self) and "hawa" (desires) is the foundation of jihad of the disbelievers and hypocrites; one cannot do jihad of them before he first does jihad of his nafs and hawa, then he goes out and fights them.'" Ibn al-Qayyim too writes about the jihad of the ego as the "prime" (al-muqaddam) and "most obligatory" (al-afraD) jihad in al-Fawa'id, Zad al-Ma`ad, al-Ruh, Ighathat al-Lahfan, etc. Similarly, Sunni scholars consider a number of hadeeth supporting non-violent jihad to be authentic. So although there seems to be a controversy about the authenticity of certain hadiths and certain interpretations of hadiths, Muslims agree that the struggle for purification of self (Jihad bin nafs) is extremely important.
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Jihad as warfare
The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi divides warfare into two types:[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, The Islamic Law of Jihad , Dar ul-Ishraq, 2001. OCLC 52901690.*]
Against injustice and oppression
Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them
The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:, see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth.[ There is a dispute among Islamic jurists that whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Companions of Muhammad or this responsibility is still being hold by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Companions][ while others translate it for the whole Muslim nation.][Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir), commentary on verse 2:143.*] As in Qur'an:
Similarly, proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that Companions of Muhammad were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an:
Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the Companions of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:
The reason for this directive in Medina instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:
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Directive of warfare
The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is:
These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight the Banu Quraish until the persecution perpetrated by them is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was ten times their might. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility.[ As in Qur'an:]
Some interpret above verses that Jihad never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims is up to a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Qur'an reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage Jihad when the need arises. The Qur’an gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad times in the following words:[ ]
While other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time.[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi. Tafhim al-Qur'an. Verse 8:66]
A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant.[ As in Qur'an:]
Qur'an also states that turning backs in the battle field, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring wrath of God.[Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 450-1] As in Qur'an:
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The driving force
Islamic scholars agree that Jihad should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words.[ As in Qur'an:]
Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an:
Abu Musa Ash‘ari (rta) narrates that once a person came to the Prophet (sws) and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valour; he then asked the Prophet (sws): “Which one of them fights in the way of Allah”. The Prophet (sws) replied: “Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah”. Sahih Bukhari 2810
Abu Hurayrah (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him”. Sahih Bukhari 2803
Ibn Jabr narrates from the Prophet (sws): “A person whose feet become dust ridden because of striving in the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell”. Sahih Bukhari 2811
Sahal Ibn Sa‘ad says that the Prophet (sws) once said: “To reside in a border area for a day to protect people against an enemy invasion is better than this world and everything it has”. Sahih Bukhari 2892
Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states:
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Ethical limits
Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if disbelievers disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.
A display of pomp and pride should be avoided when an army sets out for a battle. As in Qur'an:
People who want to remain neutral in war should be left alone and not be troubled in any way. As in Qur'an:
People who neither take part in a battle nor are able to take part in it – as per the dictates of custom as well as sense and reason – should not be killed. As according to a hadith:
‘Abdullah Ibn ‘Umar (rta) reports from the Prophet (sws) that once in a battle when it became known that a woman had been killed, the Prophet (sws) emphatically forbade the killing of the women and children. Sahih Bukhari 3015
People among the enemy should not be killed by setting them ablaze.
Plundering and looting should be abstained from. As according to a hadith:
A person from the Ansar narrates that once while traveling for a Jihad, because of great compulsion, some people of the Muslim army snatched some goats to quench their hunger. When the Prophet (sws) came to know about this, he overturned all the utensils and remarked: ‘plundered food is not better than dead meat’. Sahih Bukhari 2705
Dead bodies should not be mutilated.
Setting up obstructions and robbing travellers is forbidden. As according to a hadith:
Mua‘adh Ibn Anas narrates that once when he and others in the company of the Prophet (sws) embarked upon a campaign of Jihad it was observed that people had been obstructing the place where the army was to disembark and were busy robbing the passersby. When this complaint reached the Prophet (sws), he publicly announced at once that any person who obstructs the place of disembarkment and loots the passersby is in fact not doing Jihad. Sahih Bukhari 2629
Ibn Athir further adds:
Wrong no one and exercise no torture.
Do not touch the children, women and the old.
Do not destroy fruit-trees and fertile lands.
Do not kill sheep and cattle.
Respect all religious persons who live in hermitages or convents and spare their edifices.
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Objectives of warfare
According to verses , the Qur'an implies two objectives:
Uproot fitnah () or persecution (forcing people to renounce their religion)
Establish supremecy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula
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Against persecution
Directives for action against persecution can be found in verse . At another place, the Qur'an states:
Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.[Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb, Islamonline.net.*] Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with:
If Muslims do not have a state, then in such a situation, Muhammad while answering a question raised by one of his followers, directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from such anarchy and disorder:
I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. Sahih Bukhari 7084
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Supremecy of Islam in Arabian peninsula
It is stated in Qur'an:
After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were the ones who were subdued first. They had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God.[ Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria.][Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, pp. 151-160] The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.[Ibid., pp. 40-2 / Ibid., pp. 151-160] Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses.[Ibid., pp. 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), p. 28] The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.[Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 180-2] When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment for treason was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.[Deuteronomy, 20:10-14] In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.[Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 188-9] John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.[John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, p.15]
No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them:
This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses was in fact a show of lenience to them because of the fact that they were originally adherents to monotheism. However, they did not benefit from this lenience because after the death of Muhammad they once again resorted to fraud and treachery.[Sahih Bukhari, 2730][Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), p. 42][Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), p. 73][Ibn Athir, Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), p. 112] Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by the second Sunni Caliph Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them:
When the Idolaters of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in At-Tawba that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, This declaration was made in the Qur’an in the following words:
After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.[The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman, see Muhammad as a diplomat] Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Companions launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept faith or to accept a life of subjugation by paying Jizya. None of these nations were adherents to polytheism in the real sense, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia.
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Warfare in Muslim societies
History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad. For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople by justifying ghaza as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ghaza to justify military campaigns against the Persian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against giaurs or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some Sufi or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be formally reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin.
The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars.
The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (Jizya) were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882.
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Non-Muslim opinions
The United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:
"As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of a fundamentalist version of Islam."
"As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking." in the indictment against several individuals including José Padilla.
Some non-Muslims are confused about the meaning of jihad, due to media coverage of recent terrorist events mainly portraying 'jihad' as a declaration of 'holy war'. However, its definition is much broader, involving spiritual, political, and martial concepts. For example, Iran is home to "University Jihad".
Karen Armstrong in her book "Muhammed", writes:
"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle."•
The noted specialist of Islam, Maxime Rodinson, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. Muhammad. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)
The neologism jihadist is sometimes used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Islamist terrorism (see for example ). The term is deemed offensive by many Muslims who see it as vilifying the more complex ideology of jihad.
The Islamic religious legitimacy of the goals or methods of various Islamist movements who adopt the terminology of jihad is often brought into question by other Muslims for its failure to discriminate between combatants and non-combatants.
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Other uses
Jihad is also given as a first name, e.g. Jihad Ballout and Jihad Ahmed Jibril; or used in a nick-name, e.g. Abu Jihad
Even unrelated to Islam, the word has been used in names, e.g. the Australian hardcore punk band Jihad Against America
The collectible card game Vampire: The Eternal Struggle was originally named 'Jyhad' (note the different spelling) after a non-Islamic concept of the roleplaying game it is set in.
Thrash metal group Slayer have a song entitled "Jihad" on their Christ Illusion album, where the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks are told from the point of view of a so called "jihadist".
The Dune series of science fiction novels include several references to Jihad. In general, these novels use several Arabic terms.
Star Trek: The Animated Series (1974) had episode 14 titled "The Jihad".
Jihad is a metal song in English that is believed to be sung by Rammstein.
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See also
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Political and military aspects
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Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism
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Philosophers of Jihad doctrine
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Further reading
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Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites
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Islamic sites discussing Jihad
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Non Islamic sites discussing Jihad
JIHAD by Rev. Richard P. Bailey
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