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:The NATO phonetic alphabet, which is different, has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet.”
For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words see here.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
The symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet are divided into three categories: letters, diacritics, and suprasegmentals (symbols that indicate such things as the tone and inflection of a spoken utterance). These categories are then divided into smaller sections. For example, letters are divided into vowels and consonants, and diacritics and suprasegmentals are divided according to whether they indicate articulation, phonation, tone, intonation, or stress.
Although the IPA is meant to represent only those qualities of speech that are relevant to language itself (such as tongue position, manner of articulation, and the separation and accentuation of words and syllables),
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History
The development of the IPA began in 1886, when a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known as the International Phonetic Association. Two years after its formation, the International Phonetic Association released the first official version of the IPA, which was based upon the Romic alphabet of Henry Sweet,•
Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; the Extended IPA was first created in 1991 and revised to 1997. Also, the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) were proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of voice production.•
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Description
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each sound (or speech segment). This means that the IPA does not use letter combinations unless the sound being represented can be regarded as a sequence of two or more sounds. (In contrast, English sometimes uses combinations of two letters to represent single sounds, such as the digraphs sh and th for the sounds and , respectively.) The IPA also does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, and it does not use letters that represent multiple sounds, the way represents the double consonant in English. Additionally, the IPA does not use letters whose sound value is context-dependent, such as ''c'' in English.
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Selectiveness
The IPA is an example of what is known to linguists as a selective phonetic alphabet.[ This means that it usually does not have separate symbols for two sounds if there does not exist a language in which these two sounds are contrasted with one another.][ In other words, it aims to provide a separate symbol for every contrastive (or phonemic) sound occurring in human language.]
For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, ) for both sounds.
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Letterforms
The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.• For this reason, most symbols are either Latin or Greek letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop has the form of a “gelded” question mark, and was originally an apostrophe. Indeed, some symbols, such as that of the pharyngeal fricative , though modified to look more Latin, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter , `ain).
Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that seem to have nothing to do with Roman letters. For example, prior to 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were , , , and , all of which are clearly derived from Latin and Greek letters, as well as punctuation marks. However, except for , none of these symbols was reflective of contemporary practice among Khoisanists (who use symbols for click consonants the most frequently). Hence, at the 1989 convention of the International Phonetic Association in Kiel, they were replaced by the more iconic symbols , , , , and .
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Symbols and sounds
The sound-values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet correspond roughly to those of French, and are also close to those of most other European languages (including English): these consonants are , , , (hard) , , , , , , (unvoiced) , , , and . The other consonants from the Latin alphabet, , , , , , , , and , correspond to the sounds these letters represent in various other languages:
The vowels from the Latin alphabet (, , , , ) correspond to the vowels of Spanish and are similar to those of Italian. is like the vowel in piece, is as in rule, etc.
Symbols derived from the Greek alphabet include , , , , , , and . Of these, the only ones that closely correspond to the Greek letters they are derived from are and . , , , and denote beta-like, epsilon-like, phi-like, and chi-like sounds, but do not correspond to them exactly. represents a u-like sound, but is otherwise fairly distant from the original Greek letter <υ>, upsilon.
The sound-values of modifications of Latin letters can usually be derived from those of the original letters. For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (any more than it is possible to tell that “p” is a voiceless bilabial plosive just by looking at the shape of the letter).
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed.
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Usage
Although at first the IPA may seem too precise to offer much choice in how to transcribe speech, there is in fact a variety of ways to do so. At one end of the spectrum is narrow transcription, in which every feature of every sound is specified, down to the dialect and speech habits of the individual speaker. At the other end of the spectrum is broad transcription, which attempts to provide just enough detail to allow for variations among different speakers’ pronunciation of the same utterance. In either case, the transcription is generally enclosed in brackets.
One kind of broad transcription is known as phonemic transcription, and is usually enclosed in slashes. In this kind of transcription, the same letter is used for two sounds if the particular language being transcribed does not make a distinction between them. (This is a kind of “local selectiveness”.) For example, the American pronunciation of the English word “little” may be transcribed using the IPA as (phonemically) or (narrowly). The broad, phonemic transcription, placed between slashes, indicates merely that the word ends with phoneme , and does not bother to indicate the velarity of this consonant, as this detail is irrelevant insofar as the meaning of the word is concerned. On the other hand, the narrow, allophonic transcription, placed between square brackets, specifies that this final is dark (velarized) when realized.
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Use in dictionaries
Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use conventions designed to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster•) use “y” for IPA and “sh” for IPA , reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English. (In IPA, represents the sound of the German ü, and represents the pair of sounds in grass hut.)
One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt).• Regional dialects without the caught-cot merger generally pronounce cŏt like IPA (with an open central unrounded vowel) and côt like IPA (with an open back rounded vowel), whereas those with the merger pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA in the Boston dialect). Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language. •
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Educational initiative
There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds.
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Letters
The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.
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Consonants (pulmonic)
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis or oral cavity and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category•dental]]
! style="width: 4em;" | Dental
! style="width: 4em;" | Alveolar
! style="width: 4em;" | Post‐
alveolar
! style="width: 4em;" | Retro‐
flex
! style="width: 4em;" | Palatal
! style="width: 4em;" | Velar
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Uvular
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Pharyn‐
geal
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Epi‐
glottal
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Glottal
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Nasal
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|m}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɱ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|n}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɳ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɲ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɴ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="6" style="background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Plosive
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}
| class="nounderlines" | * *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʈ}} {{IPA|ɖ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|c}} {{IPA|ɟ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | {{IPA|q}} {{IPA|ɢ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | {{IPA|ʡ}}
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ʔ}}
| style="width: 1em; background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Fricative
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɸ}} {{IPA|β}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|θ}} {{IPA|ð}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʃ}} {{IPA|ʒ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʂ}} {{IPA|ʐ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ç}} {{IPA|ʝ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|x}} {{IPA|ɣ}}
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|χ}}
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ʁ}}
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ħ}}
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ʕ}}
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ʜ}}
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | {{IPA|ʢ}}
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" colspan="2" | {{IPA|h}} {{IPA|ɦ}}
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Approximant
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|β̞}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʋ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|ɹ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɻ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|j}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɰ}}
|
|
|
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Trill
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʙ}}
|
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|r}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|*}}
|
| class="nounderlines" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | {{IPA|ʀ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Tap or Flap
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ѵ̟}}†
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ѵ}}†
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|ɾ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɽ}}
|
| class="nounderlines" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Fricative
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|ɬ}} {{IPA|ɮ}}
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Approximant
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | {{IPA|l}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ɭ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʎ}}
| class="nounderlines" | {{IPA|ʟ}}
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Flap
| class="nounderlines" colspan=2 style="background:
| class="nounderlines" colspan=3 | {{IPA|ɺ}}
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" | *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:
|}
Notes:
Asterisks () mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official Unicode support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the labiodental flap, symbolized by a right-hook v: *. In the meantime the similarly shaped izhitsa () is used here.
In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the obstruents), the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced ). However, cannot be voiced. In the other rows (the sonorants), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, etc., as appropriate for that language.
Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
The symbols represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives , , and .
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Coarticulation
Coarticulated consonants are sounds in which two individual consonants are pronounced at the same time. In English, the w in “went” is a coarticulated consonant, as the lips are rounded while the back of the tongue is raised simultaneously. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants.
Notes:
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Consonants (non-pulmonic)
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds which are made without the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and implosives (found in languages such as Swahili).
Notes:
All clicks are doubly articulated and require two symbols: a velar or uvular stop, plus a symbol for the anterior release: etc., or . When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a may usually be assumed.
Symbols for the voiceless implosives are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: , etc.
Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not "explicitly recognized" by the IPA, a retroflex implosive, , is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite .
The ejective symbol is often seen for glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as , but these are more properly transcribed as creaky ().
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Vowels
Notes:
Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel, as does (at least prototypically). All others are unrounded.
is not confirmed as a distinct phoneme in any language.
is officially a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and is frequently used for an open central vowel.
and are written as and respectively in older versions of the IPA.
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Affricates and double articulation
Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, are often used as a convenience for or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
Note:
If your browser uses Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: .
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Diacritics
Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration in the letter's pronunciation. Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol with a descender (informally called a tail), i.e. .
The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: (fricative release), (breathy voice), (glottal onset), (epenthetic schwa), o (diphthongization). More advanced diacritcs were developed in the Extended IPA for more specific pronunciation encoding.
Notes:
Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as .
With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:
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Suprasegmentals
These symbols describe the suprasegmental features of a language, collectively known as a language's prosody. These symbols show the length, stress, pitch, and rhythm of a language. Many suprasegmentals are often reserved for very specific transcriptions intended to convey the differences in speech between individuals or dialects. They are usually used to indicate a word's stress and length of vowels and consonants. The IPA also has a series of suprasegmentals which are used to indicate intonation in language. Certain languages, such as Japanese and Norwegian, possess intonation. IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones. These are used in tonal languages such as Chinese.
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Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is which has been standardised to . Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: for is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series has been dropped; they can now be written respectively.
There are also unsupported or ''ad hoc'' symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as (the "tl" in "Nahuatl").
While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters, languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is Kabye of northern Togo, which has (capital ). Other IPA-inspired capitals supported by Unicode are .
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Extended IPA
The Extended IPA is a new group of symbols for the IPA whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. However, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extended IPA has also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as whispers, nasalized voicing, and whispering
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Sounds that have no symbols in the IPA
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, . Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, . A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, . Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Palatal and uvular taps, if they exist, and the epiglottal tap could be written as extra-short plosives, . A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted , just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of can be transcribed as mid-centered , and the rounded equivalent of æ as raised . True mid vowels are lowered , while centered are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The vowels that aren't representable in this scheme are the compressed vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic.
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Symbol names
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. Official names are described in the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, although the name of a symbol may vary in context. The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as Voiced pharyngeal fricative|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents.
For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, is acute, based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as is called bridge.
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Other phonetic notation
The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the Americanist phonetic notation, devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternative to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to Slavic, Indic, Finno-Ugric, and Caucasian linguistics, as well as other regional specialties. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs.
Other alphabets, such as Hangul, may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech and its derivatives.
There is an extended version of the IPA for disordered speech (extIPA), and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as Luciano Canepari's ''canIPA''.
Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems has been declining as technical support for Unicode spreads.
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See also
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Notes
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General
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Free IPA font downloads
Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by Freetype on Linux.
Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
SIL93 the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents.
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Keyboards
WikiTeX supports editing IPA sequences directly in Wiki articles.
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Sound files
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Charts
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Unicode
F3F9FF; padding:0 1em; border:1px solid
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Technical note
Most IPA symbols are not included in Times New Roman, the default font for Latin scripts in Internet Explorer for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a font which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include Lucida Sans Unicode, which comes with Windows XP; Gentium, Charis (SIL), Doulos (SIL), DejaVu Sans, or TITUS Cyberbit, which are freely available; or Arial Unicode MS, which comes with Microsoft Office. Alternatively, the style sheet could try using Unicode-range specifications to note where Times font does not have glyphs for IPA, and thus hopefully force the browser to check further down the list of fonts.
On this page, we have forced the browser to use such a font, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using . Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as "蚟" in articles.
Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera, Safari and most other recent browsers.
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