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The Indian caste system is the traditional hereditary system of social stratification of India, in which social classes are defined by a number of hierarchical endogamous groups often termed as Jāti. Not only Hindus but Muslims, Sikhs and Christians too practice it (ref. Francis Buchanan, Indian Census Record, 1883). As Islam, Sikhism, and Christianity gained influence in the Indian subcontinent, Hindu converts would often retain their caste customs. The Indian caste system was historically linked to Hinduism through the use of scripture such as the Manusmriti. The Manusmriti is not necessarily regarded as "divine proclamation" and is regarded as the work of man. The normative texts in Hinduism such as the Vedas mention the concept of the Brahmin but do not canonically allude to any socially mandated caste system.
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Caste divisions
It is difficult to define how castes are divided. However, there are two main sources:
Early British Census Records
British Census Officers determined caste hierarchy based on the principle, e.g. someone who accepts food and water from another person but the other person does not reciprocate the same way, then the other person is superior to the former. It was contested at many places (a notable example is that the Koris of UP who said they won't accept water from Brahmins, and so should be placed higher than them). Because it was met with rampant controversies, arbitration was very common during those days. The most notable arbitration stories are:
It raised more questions than it answered and subsequent census records varied radically, making it free for all, after some time.
Manusmriti is considered as the most ancient and authentic source regarding origin and hierarchy of castes. Though it answers most of the questions, it is ambiguous at most places.Other accounts which throw light on social structure in past are:
Travel account by Alberuni
Caste division among Muslims was determined according to ancestry. One with ancestry matching with invaders were considered superior to converts.
Some castes are based on occupation. For example, goldsmiths, carpenters, and barbers each form separate sub-castes. Often, a sub-caste with a significant number of members will be divided into further subcastes. This further division may be due to:
Geographical separation: For example, there are purabia (eastern) and pachchaia (western) sections of some castes.
Variation in standards of conduct: For example, disagreements over the permissibility of widow marriages have caused some castes to subdivide.
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Varnas (Classes) and Jātis (Castes)
Although Varna Jāti and caste sounds synonymous, they have different connotations. Varna is mentioned as caste equivalent in scriptures. Puranas use it in the context of skin colour too. Puranic deities are often described as belonging to Shwet or "Gaur" meaning white and Shyam meaning black varnas. Scriptures describe Varnas as classification based on profession too. Manusmriti identified four varnas in Indian society. These are Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra according to origin. However, Lord Krishna in Bhagwad Gita says Varna are according to Karma (work) nothing to do with origin.
Theoretically, according to the Manusmriti, every caste belongs to one of the four varnas (Brahmin, Kshtriya, Vaishya, and Shudra). However, the division of Indian society into four castes was a generalization rarely held in practice. Consequently, there have been many disputes about the varna of many castes, such as castes being considered Kshatriya by some scholars, while described as Shudra by others. While texts such as the Manusmrit attempted to rationalize ambiguous castes by placing them in varna-sankaras (i.e. mixed varna), the fact remains that Indian society was, and is, composed of numerous geographically diversified but endogamous groups. With many occupational groups practicing endogamy within a particular region, as well as numerous sub-divisions within the four main castes, a more complex system of subcastes and jātis is evident. The jatis have broken up into clans like Agarwal, Iyer, etc.
Unlike the varna system of Brahmins, which requires spiritual purity in order to ascend, a jāti is able to move up or down the social hierarchy based on the aspirations of its members. Marriages are usually arranged within one's own sub-caste; however, they may occur between two affiliated sub-castes, or two sub-castes that are in the same region, and are as such termed intercaste marriages. Over time, this grew more and more rigid, until every aspect was determined by birth, with various "justifications" as described below.
To simplify the perspective, often people use the classification based on Four varnas, given in Manusmriti and other dharma-shastras: The Brahmins (Teachers, Scholars and Priests), The Khshatriyas (Kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (Traders, Landowners and some Artisan groups), and Shudras (Agriculturists, Service providers, and some Artisan groups). There was another group, which was excluded from the main society, for various reasons, which was called Parjanya or Antyaja; these were the people called untouchables. The varnas (rather than Jatis), was used after the 1902 Census by the British, for consolidation of demographic data into manageable proportions. However no commonly agreed approach for classifying the castes into the four varnas exists, sometimes a caste may claim to be a Brahmin, but others may regard it to be a Vaishya.
In the past, members of different castes would not partake in various activities, such as dining and religious gatherings, together.
When it comes to stance of hereditary caste system, the Manusmriti takes the position:
The above verse is believed to sanction support for vocational non-hereditary caste system, suggesting some flexibility in the propagation of the Castes.
Historical examples of mobility in the Indian Caste System among Hindus have been researched. The "Noniya" Caste of salt makers have claimed to the higher status of the "Chauhan Rajput". They have risen well above the untouchable line and their leaders have, in the past, mobilized upwards along the caste hierarchy•.
A well-known precedent for mobility in the caste system is that of Shivaji, the founder and monarch of the Maratha Confederacy, who was born into a lower caste but was elevated to a higher caste to facilitate his coronation•.
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Indian caste system in the United Kingdom
A report titled No escape: Caste Discrimination in the UK claims that many Indian communities in Britain still suffer caste discrimination. Researchers detail claims that many of the 50,000 Dalits in the UK suffer discrimination from other castes in terms of jobs, healthcare, politics, education and schools.
In a report, researchers were told how couples who marry outside their own caste face "violence, intimidation and exclusion". In the same report, Jeremy Corbyn, MP for Islington North and a Dalit Solidarity Network trustee, said he was aware of caste discrimination abroad but was "horrified" to "realise that caste discrimination has been exported". He added: "This is an issue which the government and all those concerned about good community relations need to address”.
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Theories about the origins of the system
The histories of many of the castes are available in form of an oral tradition. Many of these were recorded in the past few centuries. With the archaeological findings in the last one and half centuries, it is now possible to trace the emergence on several of the specific castes to 11-12th century or even a few centuries earlier. For example, Babb has attempted to trace the history of several castes in Rajasthan in his "Archemies of Violence", based largely on narratives recorded in the past few centuries. Prior to the avaialability of archaeological evidence, the histories of individual castes are often speculative.
One theory is, in its initial period caste system was flexible and it was merit and job based. One could migrate from one caste to other caste by changing one's profession. Evidence in support of it says that Rama's guru Rishi Vashishtha was a shudra and he became rishi later. Also Rishi Valmiki was a dacoit before becoming a sage. Later, the caste system is said to have become rigid, and caste began to be inherited rather than acquired by merit.
According to 19th century theories, the caste system began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. Indo-Aryan culture arrived in India around 1500 BC, around the time of the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indo-Aryans arrived in India from Central Asia. European scholars first supposed that they came as invaders, and were contemptuous of their newly-conquered subjects. This was often romanticized as a struggle between the native dark skinned culture and the invading light skinned one. Before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, the dominant cultural and linguistic group would have been the Dravidians, (see Indus Valley Civilization). The Dravidians were the largest community in India, and are by some scholars identified as the bearers of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was fully developed by 800 BC. It was at first assumed that the Indus Valley Civilization collapsed due to the apparent invasion of the Aryans, but it now seems more likely that the migration of Indo-Aryan culture came about as a result of the diminished power of the Indus Valley Civilization as it was collapsing due to internal pressures, much like the migrations period in Europe was brought on by the weakening of the Roman Empire.
The early Aryans organized among themselves in three groups, much like other Indo-European peoples. The different Jats (sub-castes) who professed different occupations were integrated in different Varnas according to their occupation. According to the invasion theory of caste origin, most of the communities that were in India before the arrival of the Aryans were integrated in the Sudra Varna or were made outcast depending on the professions of these communities. Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudras Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcasts or untouchables. Untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste people but they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes.
This Aryan Invasion theory is today often claimed to have been formulated to undermine the historical significance of India and its cultural and religious heritage by the British, and subsequently the west. The British historians were writing under a Biblical timeframe where the world began only around 4000 BC. The theory was also exploited by the British to show that they had the right to invade India, as the Indians supposedly themselves were invaders. It indirectly also implied that the "indigenous" people were incapable of creating their religion or culture and that it was brought by outsiders . Recent genetic studies have supported the idea that the invasion did not occur, showing that most north Indians today are primarily of Indian, not Central Asian, descent suggesting that the influx of Indo-Aryan culture was one primarily of language, not genes.
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Modern status of the caste system
The caste system was first exposed to the modern Western world during the Portuguese occupation and rule of sections of India. Indeed, the word 'caste' in this context is derived from the Portuguese, casta. Later, other European empires, including the British, occupied parts of the subcontinent. The anthropologist Herbert Risley's The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, published in 1892, was one of the first works on the caste system in India written by a Western scholar.
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Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes
Independent India officially documented castes and subcastes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education) through the census. The Indian reservation system differs from American affirmative action in that it relies entirely on quotas, while the US does not. The Government lists consist of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes
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Scheduled castes (SC)
Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit" is now preferred). Present population is 16% of total population of India i.e. around 160 million. For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC .
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Scheduled tribes (ST)
Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal people. Present population is 7% of total population of India i.e. around 70 million.
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Other Backward Classes (OBC)
Other backward classes generally consist of cultivators, pastoralists, artisans, etc. The Mandal Commission has covered more than 3000 castes under OBC Category. According to the Mandal Commission, the present population of OBC's is approximately 52% of the population. The Mandal Commission has since been criticized for fabricating data. The National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32% . There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBC's in India, with census data compromised by partisan politics.It is generally estimated to be sizable, but lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or and national Sample Survey.
Some Indian states are dominated by caste-based politics. Sometimes converts to other religions, such as Christianity or Islam, retain their caste identity, often due to the economic benefits it carries, and also to retain their ties with the community for social reasons. This practice, however, is often frowned upon by members of the same sub-caste.
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Contemporary criticism of the Caste System
There has been strong criticism .
In India, .
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Violence against Dalits in rural Tamil-Nadu
In 2000, three young men belonging to the Dalit undercaste were killed in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. This fuelled some localized violence in the caste-sensitive region, which has seen numerous caste-related incidents in which the majority of the victims have been Dalits. Six of the killings have been registered as murders under the Indian Penal Code and others as "Deaths under suspicious circumstances". No arrests have been made in these cases. However, several Dalits have been arrested as "goondas" (gangsters). The Chief minister of Tamil-Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, has been accused of having an "anti-Dalit" bias by the radical organization "Dalit Panthers of India". Theories concerning these crimes against Dalits range from "alcohol bootleggers opposing prohibition movements among Dalits" to "inter-caste relations between an upper-caste Vanniya boy and a Dalit girl". Political parties sympathetic to the Dalits have protested against these incidents and have alleged systemic biases against Dalits in several parts of the country.
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Bant Singh from Punjab
On the evening of January 5, 2006 Bant Singh, a poor Dalit, was attacked by unknown assailants. His injuries necessitated medical amputation. He alleges that this was in retaliation for actively working to secure justice for his daughter, who was gang raped by upper caste members of his village in Punjab five years ago.
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Caste Brahmins in Tamil Nadu
In Tamil Nadu, the Anti Hindu DMK party rose to power, under the canard of "Brahmin oppression", resulting in discrimination against upper caste Brahmins in the state of Tamil Nadu. Many Brahmins, who under the new political circumstances, have lost their prior hereditary privileges, allege, without significant proof in employment records, that Tamil and Brahmins Brahmins have left the state, due to a "hostile atmosphere" prevalent against upper castes in the region.
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Woman raped in train by Dalits
The Government Railway Police has arrested five followers of Bhimrao Ambedkar's Dalit emancipation movement for the rape of a 20-year-old woman in a train named "Pawan Express" travelling between the cities of Mumbai and Nasik. The incident was one of several incidents in Mumbai-bound trains by people mobilised by different Dalit political parties in the state.This incident is an indication of acts committed by a minority group of fringe extremists and does not indicate systemic criminality in the Dalit movement .
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The status of Untouchables
The untouchable (or Dalit) in Hindu Society was a person who worked in what were seen as unhealthy, polluting work dealing with the dead bodies and animal carcasses, the collection and disposal of bodily waste, and other jobs that brought him/her into constant contact with what society considered disgusting and even dangerous. These occupations,although they were helpful to the society and improved sanitation, were considered unclean and polluted the individual, and such polluted individuals were considered unfit for physical or social contact with the non-polluted, "purer" sections of society. Untouchables used to live separately within a subcultural context of their own, outside the inhabited limits of villages and townships, made pariahs in every sense of the word. No other castes could, or would, interfere with their social life since untouchables were lower in social ranking than even those of the shudra varna.
In the past, extreme poverty drove many untouchables to wear clothing off the bodies of the dead that they handled. In their home they ate from broken dishes discarded by others. Untouchables suffered from many social restrictions. They were not allowed temple worship with others, nor water from the same sources. Person of higher castes would not interact with them. Untouchables were not allowed to use the same wells as the other castes as that would "pollute" the water and indirectly the other castes who drank it. If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to bathe thoroughly to purge her/himself of the impurity. Such contact even included the shadow of an untouchable falling on the member of the higher caste. At the same time, the untouchables developed their own rich folk traditions with a lifestyle that was unhampered by the variety of restrictions on the rest of the society.
The inclusion of lower castes into the mainstream was argued for by Mahatma Gandhi who called them "Harijans" (people of God). The term Dalit (downtrodden) is used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising. Gandhi's contribution toward the emancipation of the untouchables is controversial. This is usually highlighted by the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an untouchable himself. Ambedkar was deeply suspicious of Gandhi's motivations and frequently saw his activities as detrimental to the cause of upliftment of his people. For instance, Gandhi, a Vaishya, was not against the caste system , but tried hard to bring untouchables into the mainstream of society and get the other castes to discard the practice of untouchability. Ambedkar, influenced by liberal thinkers like Voltaire, was interested in the elimination of the caste system and untouchability altogether. To him, Gandhi's efforts solved no problems of the untouchables as they would remain at the bottom of the hierarchy. Ambedkar suggested that the evils of the caste system would be eliminated if the upper castes (especially the Brahmins) would change their behaviour and eventually get rid of the caste system altogether.
There is a "sub-caste" that today exists even below even the Dalit: the Bhangi. The social status of the hundreds of thousands of Bhangi (approximately 32,000 families in Gujarat alone) has long been a source of contention within Indian society. Upper sub castes among Dalits like dhobi, nai etc. do not intearct with Bhangis, the lowest order among the dalits. They are called untouchable among the untouchables. This is an example of deep set roots of caste system in the Indian psyche. Fortunately, now the caste system is relaxing, especially in metropolition and other major urban areas, due to higher penetration of high education, co-existence of all communities and lesser knowledge about caste system due to alienation with rural roots of people. But in the countryside and small towns, this system is still very rigid.
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Caste System among Indian Christians
Indian Christians are stratified by sect, location, and the castes of their predecessors. For instance, the Syrian Nasrani Christians in South India retain the middle caste status in society. Starting from the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries converted some of the lower-castes to Christianity. .
Presently in India, more than 70% of Christians are Dalits, but the higher caste Christians (30% by estimates) control 90% of the churches administrative jobs *. Out of the 156 bishops, only 6 are from lower castes.
Christian churches in India are largely controlled by upper caste Priests and nuns. Low-caste Dalit Christians are discriminated against by the upper-caste Christians. The extent and practice of untouchability within the Indian Christian community have been researched. Chapels for Dalit Christians are often segregated from Christians of a higher caste. Other churches admit Dalit Christians, but keep separate pews for them. Dalit Christians are buried in separate cemeteries. In addition, Dalit boys are not allowed to be altar boys or lectors.In addition, there are various instances of economic discrimination where Dalit Christians are not allowed to own arable land by upper caste Christian clergy. In many Christian communities in India, bonded labor is still practiced. As a consequence of the discrimination, Dalit Christians tend to be very poor and undernourished. Dalit Christians are denied education by the Upper Caste Priests and nuns. Very few Dalit Christians are involved in administrative services, except for the few who reconverted back to Hinduism .
There exists evidence to show that Christian individuals have mobility within their respective castes.
Many Dalit Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by the Catholic Church. A famous Dalit activist with a nom-de-plume of Bama Faustina has written books that are critical of the discrimination by the nuns and priests in Churches in South India.
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Caste System among Indian Muslims
Some Muslims in South Asia are categorized into what have been called castes, despite Islam's egalitarian tenets.. There are many Caste Systems among Muslims in South Asia. Some of them are borrowed from Hinduism and adapted by Hindu converts, and others were mandated by interpretation of Quranic verse and established through religious Fatwas.
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Stratification
Ashraf are further divided into groups of Sayyads, Sheikhs, Mughals and Pathans, in that order of rank. It is however believed that some of them, like the other group are also converts from Hinduism. The Sayyeds are said to be descendants of the Prophet and regarded in high esteem. The Sheikhs are of Arab descent and are next in line in prestige. The Mughals are descendents of the Islamic Mughal emperors of India, and occupy third place. Pathans including Sepahis hail from the northwestern regions including Afghanistan and form the last group of Ashraf.
Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) provide religious legitimacy to caste with the help of the concept of kafa'a. A classical example of scholarly declaration of the Muslim caste system is the Fatawa-i Jahandari, written by the fourteenth century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims. Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters. He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect[.]
In addition to the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-Caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables.[ Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India''] The term "Arzal"
stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc [. The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census in India and are also called Dalit Muslims “with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground”.They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil][Dereserve these myths by Tanweer Fazal,Indian express]. The practice of untouchability, however, is now virtually nonexistent in the Muslim community.
Indian Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms' in the Bengal region of India[. Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.]
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Interaction and Mobility
Interactions between the oonchi zat (upper caste) and neechi zat (lower caste) are regulated by established patron-client relationships of the jajmani system, the upper castes being referred to as the 'Jajmans', and the lower caste as 'Kamin'. Upon contact with an low-caste Muslim, a Muslim of a higher zat can "purify" by taking a short bath, since there are no elaborate rituals for purification.[ Higher caste Muslims and lower caste Muslims are sometimes even segregated by graveyards. ][Backward Muslims protest denial of burial]
Data shows that the castes among Muslims has never been as rigid as that among Hindus. The rate of endogamous marriage, for example, is less than two thirds.[Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture and Society Edited by T.N. Madan. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976 pp. 114] An old saying also goes "Last year I was a Julaha (weaver); this year a Shaikh; and next year if the harvest be good, I shall be a Sayyid."[Muslim Civilization in India S. M. Ikram, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964]
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Criticism
While some scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus[, scholars such as Ambedkar disagreed with this thesis][, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in hindu society".]
Babasaheb Ambedkar was an illustrious figure in Indian politics and the chief forger of the Indian Constitution. He was extremely critical of the Muslim Caste System and their practices, quoting that "Within these groups there are castes with social precedence of exactly the same nature as one finds among the Hindus". He was critical of how the Ashrafs regarded the Ajlaf and Arzal as "worthless" and the fact that Muslims tried to sugarcoat the sectarian divisions by using euphemisms like "brotherhood" to describe them. He was also critical of the precept of literalism of scripture among Indian Muslims that led them to keep the Muslim Caste system rigid and discriminatory. He condemned the Indian Muslim Community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries like Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century[.]
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See also
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Notable people
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Buddhist Revivalist and most prominent leader of the 20th century born in Hindu Untouchable/Dalit Community.
Savitri Devi saw Brahmins as the bearers of Aryan culture to India, and admired the separation they kept between themselves and the Dravidians.
Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, essential precursor of Dalit political activism; devised a theory that established lowcaste people as the original inhabitants of India having been conquered in the ancient past by Brahman invaders (an example of the creative inversion of classical Aryan invasion theory)
Bangaru Laxman, BJP president 2001-2002. A former Dalit himself, he helped prove the BJP was not all about Brahmins.
Kancha Ilaiah, Professor at Osmania University known for his polemical attacks on Hindus.
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Notes
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Literature
L.A. Babb (2004). Alchemis of Violence, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1893). General report on the Census of India, 1891, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office
G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
E.A.H. Blunt (1931). The Caste System of Northern India, republished 1964, S. Chand, Delhi.
Crooke, William (1896). Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 4 vols.
Russell, R.V. and R.B. Hira Lal (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, 4 vols., London.
Harikrishna Shastri (1871). Brahmanotpatti-martanda (Sanskrit/Hindi).
Jwalaprasd Mishra (1914). Jati Bhaskar, (Hindi).
Duiker/Spielvogel. The Essential World History Vol I: to 1800. 2nd Edition 2005
Susan Bayly (2001), Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Paperback Edition, Cambridge University Press
Christophe Jaffrelot (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes, C. Hurst & Co
Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) -- Poona Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
Murray Milner, Jr. (1994). Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press
Ranganayakamma (2001). For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad Sweet Home Publications
Alain Danielou (1976). Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris
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