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Glucose and ethanol combine to form ethyl glucoside and water.
Chemistry The hemiacetal group of carbohydrates is reactive, and glycosidic bonds form readily in the presence of acid. This is a condensation reaction as one molecule of water is released. Glycosidic bonds are fairly stable; they can be broken chemically by strong aqueous acids. A glycosidic functional group is an example of an acetal. Saccharides in aqueous solution can exist in linear (rare) or cyclic form (more common), and these forms readily interconvert. Only the cyclic forms have an anomeric carbon and can form a glycosidic bond; once the bond has formed, the saccharide unit can no longer attain the linear form. Polysaccharides A glycosidic bond can join two monosaccharide molecules to form a disaccharide, as for instance in the linkage of glucose and fructose to create sucrose. More complicated polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, cellulose or chitin consist of numerous monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds. While the cyclic structures of monosaccharide units are fairly rigid, the glycosidic bonds confer flexibility to polysaccharide molecules. Glycosidic bonds join monosaccharides to form polysaccharides, just like peptide bonds join amino acids to form proteins. S- and N- and O-glycosidic bonds In analogy, one also considers S-glycosidic bonds, where the anomeric carbon of a sugar is bound to some other group via a sulfur (rather than an oxygen) atom, and N-glycosidic bonds, where the anomeric carbon is bound to some other group via a nitrogen atom. The glycosidic bonds discussed earlier are often called O-glycosidic bonds to distinguish them from S- and N-glycosidic bonds. Substances containing N-glycosidic bonds are also known as glycosylamines; the term "N-glycoside" is considered a misnomer by IUPAC and is discouraged. Examples from biochemistry Important examples in biochemistry include DNA (or RNA), where deoxyribose (or ribose) sugar units are joined to nucleobases via N-glycosidic bonds. Organisms also often form glycoproteins by attaching sugars to proteins via O-glycosidic or N-glycosidic bonds in a process known as glycosylation. Animals (and pharmacists) often join substances to glucuronic acid via glycosidic bonds in order to increase their water solubility; this is known as glucuronidation. Many other glycosides have important physiological functions. α- and β-glycosidic bonds In general, one distinguishes between α- and β-glycosidic bonds, depending on whether the original hydroxyl group of the participating anomeric carbon is in the α or β configuration. In the standard way of drawing sugars, an α-glycosidic bond of a D-sugar emanates below the plane of the sugar, and a β-glycosidic bond emanates above that plane. (The figure above shows methyl α-D-glucoside.) In a 1,4-glycosidic bond a C1-O-C4 bond is made involving the C1 of one sugar molecule and C4 of the other and a C1-0-C6 bond is called a 1,6-glycosidic bond. Enzymes Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of O-, S- or N-glycosidic bonds are called glycoside hydrolases (or glycosidases). Glycoside hydrolases typically can act either on α- or on β-glycosidic bonds, but not on both. Glycosides are usually synthesized in nature by enzymes called glycosyltransferases. Before monosaccharide units are condensed with suitable nucleophiles to form glycosides, they are typically first "activated" by being joined via a glycosidic bond to the phosphate group of a nucleotide such as UDP, or guanosine diphosphate (GDP). Some activated glycosyl donor substrates of glycosyltransferases are mono or oligosaccharides linked to lipids through a phosphate or diphosphate group. Glycosyltransferases catalyze the transfer of the activated sugar to an acceptor molecule such as another carbohydrate, a protein or a lipid. | ||||||||
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