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For the geography topic, see Environmental determinism. Environmentalism is the advocation of preservation, restoration, and/or improvement of the natural environment, such as the conservation of natural resources, prevention of pollution, and certain land use actions. In essence, the word "Environmentalism" overlaps in the multitude of perspectives on the aspects of the environment that are currently in vogue: "greening", "environmental management", "environmental responsibility", "resource efficiency and waste minimisation", and "environmental responsibility,ethics and justice" ( Bhattacharya,2004). History in the U.S. The philosophical foundations for environmentalism in the United States were established by Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau. In 1864, George Perkins Marsh published Man & Nature, in which he anticipated many concepts of modern ecology. Organized environmentalism began with the conservation movement in the late 19th century, which urged the establishment of state and national parks and forests, wildlife refuges, and national monuments intended to preserve noteworthy natural features. Early conservationists included President Theodore Roosevelt, Gifford Pinchot, and John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club. Conservationists organized the National Parks and Conservation Association, the Audubon Society, the Izaak Walton League, and other groups still active. After World War II increasing encroachment on wilderness land evoked the continued resistance of conservationists, who succeeded in blocking a number of projects in the 1950s and 1960s, including the proposed Bridge Canyon Dam that would have backed up the waters of the Colorado River into the Grand Canyon National Park. The “New Environmentalism” In the 1950s and 1960s, the public was becoming aware that conservation of wilderness and wildlife was but one aspect of protecting an endangered environment. Concern about air pollution, water pollution, solid waste disposal, dwindling energy resources, radiation, pesticide poisoning (particularly as described in Rachel Carson's influential Silent Spring, 1962), noise pollution, and other environmental problems engaged a broadening number of sympathizers and gave rise to what became known as the “new environmentalism.” Public support for these issues culminated in the Earth Day demonstrations of 1970. The new movement had a broader goal—to preserve life on the planet. The more radical groups believe that continued industrial development is incompatible with environmentalism. Other groups, notably Greenpeace, which advocated direct action to preserve endangered species, often clashed violently with opponents. Less militant organizations called for sustainable development and the need to balance environmentalism with economic development. Environmental legislation The environmental movement generated extensive legislation, notably the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established an Environmental Protection Agency and a Council on Environmental Quality; the Clean Air Acts of 1970 and 1990; the Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in 1972; other laws regulating noise, pesticides, toxic substances, and ocean dumping; and laws to protect endangered species, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. NEPA requires all federal agencies to file impact statements assessing the environmental consequences of proposed projects such as highways, jet runways, bridges, dams, and nuclear power plants. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, monitoring, and enforcement. Citizens are empowered to sue both private industry and government agencies for violating antipollution standards. Subsequent legislation includes the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the Superfund Act (1980). In the 1980s under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush many acts were allowed to expire and the scope of environmental protection was curtailed. There is also environmental regulation in the various states and localities, and in other countries. Environmental organizations and conferences Several environmental organizations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, specialize in bringing lawsuits. Other environmentalist groups, such as the National Wildlife Federation, World Wildlife Fund, Friends of the Earth, the Nature Conservancy, and the Wilderness Society, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and purchase land for preservation. A smaller group, including Wildlife Conservation International and the Worldwide Fund for Nature, conduct research on endangered species and ecosystems. More radical organizations, such Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation, the underground Earth Liberation Front engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals, and other acts of sabotage. On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992). Environmental activism Environmental activism dates back nearly 400 years. The first such recorded instance is that of the Bishnois of Rajasthan, India when a number of Bishnois embraced death in defiance to allow to cut trees in their villages, by the king's men of that region. Though it was not a conscious movement at that time, it showed a community concern for the upkeep of environment -- a necessary attribute of environmentalism -- for the first time. The Environmental Movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not enemy of) ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. Additionally, throughout history, environmentalism has been incorporated into religion. The movement is represented by a range of organizations, from the large to grassroots. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the Environmental Movement is not entirely united. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, and extremists. Environmentalists are also often linked with other social movements, such as human and animal rights and pacifism. Corporation-NGO-Government and Public Alliance Though not without disputes and confrontation,the new areas of co-operation with public and privates parties are adding new dimension to environmentalism.One such relative sucesss is the banning and implementaion of Montreal Protocol for Ozone Hole substances like Freon which ,albeit for a small time, showed the decrease in the size of the antarctic ozone hole.Greenpeace-Foron alliance is one such good example. Environmentalism places special priority on these areas: Environmental organizations Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (NGO). See also: Non-fiction Fiction Popular music Environmentalism has occasionally been the topic of song lyrics since the 1960s. See Environmental protest songs for a list of such songs. Recently, a record label has emerged out of a partnership with Warner Music, which places environmental issues at its foundation. Green label records produces CDs using biodegradable paper, donates the proceeds of CD sales to environmental organizations, and plans tours using alternative fuels and carbon-neutral philosophies. It is working to build a network of environmentally conscious musicians and music fans across North America. See also | |||||||
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