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In a given domain of knowledge, dualism involves the existence of two fundamental principles (or concepts), often in opposition to each other. What precisely 'dualism' then entails depends on the context. Moral dualism Moral dualism is the belief of the coexistence (in eastern religions) or conflict (in western religions) between the "benign" and the "malign". Most religious systems have some form of moral dualism; in western religions for instance as a conflict between good, and evil. Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply that such a religion is not monist, or even that such a religion is not monotheistic. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and - unlike ditheism/bitheism - independent of how these may be represented. Ditheism/Bitheism In theology, 'dualism' may refer to 'ditheism' or 'bitheism', the belief that there are two rival great gods, that work in polar opposition to each other. For example, one god is good, the other evil (see the problem of evil and theodicy); or one god works for order, the other for chaos. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent, for ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not imply any Notwithstanding the 'di-'/'bi-' ('two') prefix in 'ditheism'/'bitheism' - does not imply that such a religion cannot also be monist. Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Manichaeism and Mandaeanism, all three of which are representative of dualistic philosophies, are also monist religions since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true of the lesser-known Christian gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, Catharism, etc. These may then be contrasted with Marcionism, which held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods with neither having a superior instance (both were First Principles, but of different religions). In Eastern mysticism Alternatively, dualism can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching categories. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it, or when one perceives a "self" that is distinct from the rest of the world. In mystic traditions such as Zen, a key to enlightenment is "overcoming" this sort of dualism, without merely substituting it with monism or pluralism. The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of Yin and Yang is a large part of Taoist religion. Some of the common associations with Yang and Yin, respectively, are: male and female, light and dark, active and passive, motion and stillness. Although, these interpretations are just the common concepts which are some aspects derived from the greater concepts of Yin and Yang. The Tai-Chi in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism, instead it represents the Eastern dualism philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. The complementary aspects of masculinity and femininity are revered by certain Neo-pagan religions. In philosophy of mind In philosophy of mind, dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to materialism in general, and reductive materialism in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as substance dualism which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as property dualism which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as "mind and body" and stands in contrast to philosophical monism, which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing. See also Cartesian dualism, substance dualism, epiphenomenalism. The belief in possessing both a body and a spirit as two separate entities was first documented in approximately 1000 B.C. by Zoroastrianism, and has become a very common view in the present day. In Samkhya philosophy Correctly distinguishing between Self (Spirit/Consciousness Purusha) and Matter/Nature (Prakriti) is of central importance to Samkhya Philosophy. Samkhya Philosophy elaborates a fundamental dualism between such aware Selves and all the phenomena that is presented to such Selves by Matter/Nature. Such phenomena of Matter/Nature includes reflections of the intellect, the faculty that makes things personal (the I-Maker/Ahamkara), the instinctual mind (manas), the capacities to perceive sense data, the capacities to act, the principles of the elements of sense perception, and the gross elements. These arise when Prakriti is in the presence of a Purusha, and they become enmeshed and entangled when there is mis-identification between Prakriti and Purusha. False confusion between the Self and what is not the Self is considered the fundamental ignorance that perpetuates bondage in this world. Liberation is sought by becoming aware of such distinctions on a very deep level of personal knowledge, so that one may eventually use the great faculty of the mind -- intellectual reflection (Buddhi/Mahat) -- without mistakenly identifying it with the Purusha, and then the effects of such entanglement will unravel and one will no longer be bound by incarnations or confused by Prakriti. In Vedantic philosophy Vedantic philosophy also does not propose dualism in mind and matter. It rather looks at everything as Brahman which is also called Satchitananda (Being-Consciousness-Bliss). The nature (which consists of mind as well as matter) is a projection of this Brahman. In Buddhist philosophy During the classical era of Buddhist philosophy in India, philosophers such as Dharmakirti argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and Buddhist atoms (Buddhist atoms are merely the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to "the standard interpretation" of Dharmakirti's Buddhist metaphysics. Typically, in Western philosophy, dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with pieces of tissue in the brain, and therefore, also interacting, in some sense, with the micro-particles (basic building blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is a dualism between not the mind and brain which is made of particles, but rather, between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like so many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved mereological nihilism, meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of quantum physics (quarks, electrons, etc.). In philosophy of science In philosophy of science, dualism often refers to the dichotomy between the "subject" (the observer) and the "object" (the observed). Some critics of Western science see this kind of dualism as a fatal flaw in science. In part, this has something to do with potentially complicated interactions between the subject and the object, of the sort discussed in the social construction literature. In contemporary feminist theory An interesting theory relating to dualism and a contemporary feminist world view is presented by Susan Bordo. Bordo contends that dualism has shaped Western culture since the time of Plato, through Augustine and Descartes, up to the present day. All three of these philosophers provide instructions, rules or models as to how to gain control over the body, with the ultimate aim of learning to live without it. The mind is superior to the body, and strength comes from disregarding the body's existence to reach an elevated spiritual level. Bordo believes that the existence of anorexia nervosa is the most telling and compelling argument that dualism is still a key aspect of modern thinking. She believes it is oftentimes a dangerous way of looking at the world. Those who are anorexic seek to gain ultimate control, and depriving oneself of food makes one a master of one's own body, which creates a sense of purity and perfection. Again, Bordo contends this stems from dualism, the separation of the mind and body. In recent religious and philosophical movements In recent years, after European Imperialism, the distinction between "eastern" and "western" philosophy has been less significant than in previous times. In the wake of these changes new religious and philosophical movements have drawn freely upon many of the world's religions to attract new inititiats. Dualism is often cited within these groups, along with ideas of Oneness, and Theories of multiple intelligences. In the Emin Society (printed in their archives) Dualism is presented as the Law of Two, which is said to have seven levels: See also Notes | |||||||
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