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Geography and climate Courland's northeastern boundary was the river Daugava (Dvina), which separated it from the districts of Latgale (part of Vitebsk province in the times of Imperial Russia) and Livonia. To the north, Courland's boundary was the Gulf of Riga. On the west it was bordered by the Baltic Sea, and on the south its neighbors were the Prussian province of East Prussia and Kovno province in the time of Imperial Russia. The area comprised 27,286 km² (10,535 sq.mi.), of which 262 km² (101 sq.mi.) was made up of lakes. The landscape generally had a low and undulating character, with flat and marshy coastlands. The interior featured wooded dunes, covered with pine, fir, birch, and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. Courland's elevation never rose more than 213 m (700 feet) above sea level. The Jelgava (Mitau) plain divided Courland into two parts: Nearly one hundred rivers drained Courland, but only three of those rivers -- the Daugava, the Lielupe (Aa) and the Venta (Windau) -- are navigable. They all flow northwestward and discharge into the Baltic Sea. Owing to its numerous lakes and marshes, Courland had a damp, often foggy, and changeable climate, with severe winters. Agriculture was the chief occupation, with the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax, and potatoes. Population The population was 619,154 in 1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were women; 714,200 (estimate) in 1906. Of the whole, 79% were Latvians, 8.75% Germans, 1.7% Russians, and 1% each Poles and Lithuanians. In addition, there were about 8% Jews, and some Livonians. The chief towns of the ten districts were Jelgava (Mitau), Courland's capital (pop. 35,011 in 1897), Bauska (6,543), Jaunjelgava (Friedrichstadt) (5,223), Kuldīga (Goldingen) (9,733), Grobiņa (1,489), Aizpute (Hasenpoth) (3,338), Ilūkste (Illuxt) (2,340), Talsi (Talsen) (6,215), Tukums (Tuckum) (7542), and Ventspils (Windau) (7,132). 75% of the population belonged to the prevailing denomination, Lutheranism; the rest belonged to the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. There was a small but vigorous Jewish population. Early history In ancient times the Curonians, a Baltic tribe, inhabited Courland. The Brethren of the Sword, a German military order, subdued the Curonians and converted them to Christianity in the first quarter of the 13th century. In 1237 the area passed into the rule of the Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. At that time Courland comprised the two duchies of Courland and of Semigalia (Semgallen). Livonian Confederation Duchy of Courland, 1561–1795 During the Livonian Wars (1558–1582), under the increasing pressure of Russia, the Livonian Confederation dissolved. On the basis of the Wilno Pact, The south-western part of Estonia and the north-eastern part of Latvia were ceded to Poland and formed into the ''Ducatus Ultradunensis'' (Pārdaugavas hercogiste). The part of Latvia between the west bank of the Daugava River and the Baltic Sea formed another new region, the Duchy of Courland and Semigalia (Kurzemes un Zemgales hercogiste). It depended on the Grand Duke of Lithuania, later on the king of Poland and Lithuania. Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, became the first duke of Courland. Several parts of the Courland area did not belong to the Duchy. The Order of Livonia had already loaned the Grobiņa district (on the coast of Baltic Sea) to the Duke of Prussia. Another district, the Bishopric of Piltene, also called the "Bishopric of Courland" (on the Venta River in western Courland), belonged to Magnus, the king of Denmark. He promised to transfer it to the Duchy of Courland after his death, but this plan failed and only later did Wilhelm Kettler regain this district. When Gotthard Kettler died in 1587, his sons, Friedrich and Wilhelm, became the dukes of Courland. They divided the Duchy into two parts in 1596. Friedrich controlled the eastern part, Semigalia (Zemgale), with his residence in Jelgava (Mittau). Wilhelm owned the western part, Courland (Kurzeme), with his residence in Kuldīga (Goldingen). Wilhelm regained the Grobiņa district when he married the daughter of the Duke of Prussia. He also paid out and regained control over the Piltene district, but eventually it fell to Poland. Here he developed metalworking, shipyards, and the new ships delivered the goods of Courland to other countries. However, relations between the duke and the landowners were quite hostile. In addition, Poland, the overlord of the Duchy of Courland, supported the landowners. Wilhelm expressed his disappointment with the landowners, but this ended with his removal from the duke's seat in 1616. Finally, Wilhelm left Courland and spent the rest of his life abroad. Thus, Friedrich became the only duke of Courland after 1616. From 1600 to 1629, Poland and Sweden conducted a war with its main battlefields around Riga. As the result, Sweden gained control of central and northern Latvia, which became Swedish Livonia. Poland retained the eastern part of the Duchy of Livonia, thereafter called Inflanty in Polish. Courland was also involved in this war, but did not suffer severe damage. Under the next duke, Jacob Kettler, the Duchy reached the peak of its prosperity. During his travels in Western Europe, Jacob became the eager proponent of mercantilist ideas. Metalworking and ship building became much more developed, and powder mills began producing gunpowder. Trading relations developed not only with nearby countries, but also with Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, etc. Jacob established the merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland, with its main harbours in Ventspils and Liepāja. In 1651 the Duchy gained its first colony in Africa, St. Andrews Island at the Gambia River and established Jacob Fort there. (See Courland colonization.) The main export goods included ivory, gold, furs and spices. Soon afterwards, in 1652, Courlanders established another colony, in Tobago in the West Indies. There the main export goods included sugar, tobacco, coffee and spices. (For the Tobago colony, see Courland colonization of the Americas.) However, during this time, the Duchy of Courland remained an object of interest for both Sweden and Poland. In 1655 the Swedish army entered the territory of the Duchy and the Swedish–Polish war (1655 – 1660) had begun. The Swedish army captured Duke Jacob (1658 – 1660). During this period, the Dutch took over both of Courland's colonies, and the merchant fleet and factories suffered destruction. This war ended with the peace Treaty of Oliwa (1660) (signed in Oliwa, near Danzig which is now called Gdańsk). Courland regained Tobago on the basis of the treaty and held it until 1689. Duke Jacob set about restoring the fleet and factories, but the Duchy of Courland never again reached its pre-war level of prosperity. When Jacob died in 1682, his son, Friedrich Casimir, became the next duke. During his reign production continued to decrease. The duke himself was more interested in glamorous celebrations, and spent more money than he had to spend; he had to sell Tobago to the British. He died in 1698. During this period, Poland increased its influence in the political and economic life of the Duchy. Additionally, Russia showed an interest in this area. The next Duke, Friedrich Wilhelm Kettler, was only six years old when he succeeded in 1698, and he was under the regency of his uncle Ferdinand — a Polish general. During this time the Northern Wars (1700 – 1721) began between Sweden and Russia with its allies — Poland, Saxony and Denmark. As a result of the Great Northern War, Russia controlled the central part of Latvia starting in 1710. In Courland, Russia also had such a strong influence that its ambassador, Peter Bestuzhev, became the most powerful man in the duchy. The Tsar of Russia, Peter the Great, received a promise from Friedrich Wilhelm that he would marry one of the daughters of the tsar's brother. By having this promise, Peter the Great wished to increase the influence of Russia in Courland. So, in 1710, Friedrich Wilhelm married Anna Ivanovna (later Empress of Russia), but on his way back from St Petersburg, he took ill and died. Anne ruled as duchess of Courland from 1711 to 1730. After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm, the next candidate for the seat of duke was Ferdinand Kettler, but his residence was in Danzig. The Council of the Duke did not recognize him, because the rules required the duke to reside in the territory of the Duchy. So there was not any duke in Courland. Because Ferdinand was the last representative of Kettler's family, a remarkable number of candidates tried to gain the seat of duke during this period. One favorite was Maurice de Saxe, natural son of Frederick Augustus I the Strong, king of Poland. He was elected duke in 1726, but only managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next year. Russia disliked him and sent an army to western Courland to destroy Maurice's base. As the result Maurice had to leave Courland and Russia increased its influence even more. The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737. When Anna Ivanovna, the wife of Friedrich Wilhelm, became Empress of Russia, her candidate, Ernst Johann von Biron became duke of Courland in 1737. Biron received remarkable financial support from Russia and invested it in construction - for example, the castle of Schloss Ruhenthal projected by the distinguished Italian architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Anna Ivanovna died in 1740 and then occurred the change of persons, having their influence in political life in Russia. Duke Ernst Biron was exiled. Also from there, through the Council of the Duke, he continued to control the Duchy, having accept from the king of Poland. However, the landowners of Courland disliked that and even refused to follow the regulations of the Council of the Duke. King August III of Poland gave up against the landowners of Courland and declared his son, Carl, the count of Saxony, the next duke. Thus, the Duchy of Courland had two dukes simultaneously thereafter. The situation became extremely tense — one part of the landowners accepted Ernst Biron, the other, Carl of Saxony. The Empress of Russia, Catherine II (reigned 1762 - 1796) solved this situation by recalling Ernst Biron from exile in 1763. By doing this, she avoided the possible increase of Poland's influence in Courland. However, political fighting had exhausted Ernst Biron, and he turned the seat of duke over to his son, Peter Biron, in 1769. But political tumult continued in Courland. Some landowners supported Poland, some Russia. Ultimately, Russia determined the further fate of Courland when with its allies it began the third division of Poland (1795). Having a "nice recommendation" of Russia, duke Peter Biron gave up his rights to Russia in 1795. With the signing of the final document on March 28, 1795, the Duchy of Courland ceased to exist. Courland as part of Russia The land was mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means some occupants bought their farms; but the great mass of the population remained landless, and lived as hired labourers, occupying a low position in the social scale. The large estates conducted agriculture with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grew well. Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs were kept. Libau and Mitau (Jelgava) operated as the principal industrial centres, with ironworks, agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass and soap works. Flax spinning took place mostly as a domestic industry. Iron and limestone were the chief minerals; a little amber was found on the coast. The only seaports were Libau, Windau (Ventspils) and Polangen, there being none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. Courland as part of Latvia After World War I, Courland became a part of the newly-formed nation of Latvia. In 1940 the USSR annexed the region, but Germany occupied it during World War II. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Courland became part of independent Latvia once more and it remains so to this day. Courland during World War II At the start of Operation Barbarossa in 1941, Courland, along with the rest of the Baltic area belonging to the Soviet Union, was overrun by Army Group North headed by Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb. In 1944, the Red Army lifted the siege of Leningrad and re-conquered the Baltic area along with much of Ukraine and Belarus. However, some 200,000 German troops held out in Courland. They were besieged with their backs to the Baltic Sea. They were senselessly stuck there; the Red Army naturally did not pay much attention while concentrating its men and weapons on the attacks on East Prussia, Silesia, Pomerania, and ultimately Berlin. Colonel-General Heinz Guderian, the Chief of the German General Staff, insisted to Adolf Hitler that the troops in Courland should be evacuated by sea and used for the defense of the Reich. However, Hitler refused and ordered the German forces in Courland to hold out. He believed them necessary to protect German submarine bases along the Baltic coast. On January 15, 1945, Army Group Courland (Heeresgruppe Kurland) was formed under Colonel-General Dr. Lothar Rendulic. Until the end of the war, Army Group Courland (including divisions such as the Latvian Freiwiliger SS Legion) successfully defended the Latvian peninsula. It held out until May 8, 1945, when it surrendered under Colonel-General Carl Hilpert, the army group's last commander. He surrendered to Marshal Leonid Govorov, the commander of opposing Soviet forces on the Courland perimeter. At this time the group still consisted of some 31 divisions of varying strength. After May 9 1945 approximately 203,000 troops of Army Group Courland began moving to Soviet prison camps in the East. The majority of them never returned to Germany (Haupt,1997). The dukes of Courland and their coinage Notable residents See also Notes | |||||||||
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