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Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on Jesus, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. Christians believe Jesus to be the Messiah and thus refer to him as Jesus Christ. With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents in 2001, Christianity is the world's largest religion. It is the predominant religion in the Americas, Europe, Philippine Islands, Oceania, and large parts of Africa. It is also growing rapidly in Asia, particularly in China and South Korea. It has also increased in popularity in Northern Africa. Christianity began in the 1st century as a Jewish sect, and shares many religious texts with Judaism, specifically the Hebrew Bible, known to Christians as Old Testament (see Judeo-Christian). Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion because of the centrality of Abraham in their shared traditions. The name "Christian" (Greek Strong's G5546) was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in . The earliest recorded use of the term Christianity (Greek ) is by Ignatius of Antioch. Christian divisions
Beliefs
Jesus Christians identify Jesus as the Messiah. The title Messiah comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (mashiakh) meaning the anointed one, of which the Greek translation (Christos) is the source of the English word Christ. Christians believe that as Messiah Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of both the Jewish people specifically and of humanity in general, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy and the inauguration of the Kingdom of Heaven. The Christian concept of Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. Most Christians believe that Jesus is "true God and true man" (or fully divine and fully human). Jesus, as having become fully human in all respects, including mortality, suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again with the resurrection. (See Death and Resurrection of Jesus). According to Christian Scripture, Jesus was born of Mary, a virgin who conceived, not by sexual intercourse, but by the power of the Holy Spirit. (See Nativity of Jesus) Little of Jesus' childhood is covered by the Gospels compared to his ministry and especially his last week. The Biblical account of his ministry begins with his baptism and recounts miracles: turning water into wine at a marriage at Cana, exorcisms, and healings. It also quotes his teachings, such as the Sermon on the Mount, and records Jesus' appointing of the Twelve Apostles. Most Christians consider the death and resurrection of Jesus the most important events in history. According to the Gospels, Jesus and his followers went to Jerusalem for the Passover and, in the triumphal entry, were greeted by a crowd of supporters. Later that week, he enjoyed a ritual meal — the Last Supper, possibly the Passover Seder — with his disciples before going to pray in the Garden of Gethsemane, where he was arrested by Roman soldiers on orders from the Sanhedrin and the high priest Caiaphas. The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, because Jesus was popular with many of the people in Jerusalem. Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus' apostles, betrayed Him by identifying his location to the authorities for money. Following the arrest, Jesus was tried by the Sanhedrin, which found him guilty of blasphemy and wished to execute him, though it lacked the legal authority. Thus Jesus was sent to Pontius Pilate, who in turn sent him to Herod Antipas. Herod, though initially excited at meeting Jesus, ended up mocking him and sending him back to Pilate. Pilate, in accord with a Passover custom where the Roman governor freed one prisoner, offered the crowd a choice between Jesus and an insurrectionist named Barabbas. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands, to display that he claimed innocence of the injustice of the decision. Pilate then ordered Jesus to be crucified with a charge, the titulus crucis, placed atop the cross which read "Jesus the Nazarene, the King of the Jews". Jesus died by late afternoon and was buried by Joseph of Arimathea. Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day since his crucifixion, then later appeared first to Mary Magdalene, to his assembled disciples on the evening after his resurrection, and to various people in several places over the next forty days. During one of these visits, Jesus' disciple Thomas initially doubted the resurrection, but after being invited to place his finger in Jesus' pierced side he said to him: "My Lord and my God!" Before his Ascension Jesus instructed his Apostles to "...go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit...", a command known as the Great Commission. Salvation Most Christians believe that salvation from "sin and death" is available through faith in Jesus as saviour because of his atoning sacrifice on the cross which paid for sins. Reception of salvation is related to justification and usually understood as the activity of unmerited Divine grace. The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of the free will to cooperate with grace. Reformed theology goes furthest in emphasizing dependence on grace by teaching the total depravity of mankind and the irresistibility of grace. (See Five points of Calvinism) The Trinity Most Christians believe that God is one eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ the eternal Word), and the Holy Spirit. Christianity continued from Judaism a belief in the existence of a single omnipotent God who created and sustains the universe. Against this background belief in the divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit became expressed as the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, which considers the three persons of God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) share a single Divine substance. This substance is not considered divided, in the sense that each person has a third of the substance; rather, each person is considered to have the whole substance. The distinction lies in their origins or relations, the Father being unbegotten, the Son begotten, and the Spirit proceeding. The "begetting" does not refer to Mary's conceiving Jesus, but to a divine begetting before Creation; God the Son preexisted his taking human form in the Incarnation. Indeed, in the Arian disputes, the orthodox formulation was, "There was never a time when he the Son did not exist." In Reformed theology, the Trinity has special relevance to salvation, which is considered the result of an intra-Trinitarian covenant and in some way the work of each person. The Father elects some to salvation before the foundation of the world, the Son performs the atonement for their sins, and the Spirit regenerates them so they can have faith in Christ, and sanctifies them. Christians believe the Holy Spirit inspired the Scriptures, and that his active participation in a believer's life (even to the extent of "indwelling", or in a certain sense taking up residence within, the believer) is essential to living a Christian life. In Catholic, Orthodox, and some Anglican theology, this indwelling in received through the sacrament called Confirmation or, in the East, Chrismation. Most Protestants believe that the Spirit indwells a new believer at the time of salvation. Pentecostal and Charismatic Protestants believe the baptism with the Holy Spirit is a distinct experience separate from other experiences like conversion, and Pentecostals believe it will always be evident through glossolalia (speaking in tongues). Non-Trinitarians The earliest specifically non-Trinitarian belief claiming descent from Jesus' teachings was Gnosticism, whose adherents generally held that the God of the Old Testament was a lower, evil god, while Jesus was an emissary from the higher good god. Modalists such as Sabellians and Oneness Pentecostals regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself. Others believe in a greater distinction between the persons than Trinitarians accept, often restricting true divinity to the Father. Ancient Arianism and modern Jehovah's Witnesses consider Christ the highest created being. Adoptionists believed that Jesus was born human and received a higher status later, while ancient Ebionites, Reformation-era Socinians, and the Socinians' modern descendants the Unitarians view Jesus as never more than human. Latter-day Saints accept the divinity of all three, but deny they have a common essence, believing them to be united only by a shared purpose. Scriptures Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as authoritative: written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and therefore the inerrant Word of God. Protestants believe that the scriptures contain all revealed truth necessary for salvation (See Sola scriptura). The Old Testament contains the entire Jewish Tanakh, though in the Christian canon the books are ordered differently and some books of the Tanakh are divided into several books by the Christian canon. The Catholic and Orthodox canons include the Hebrew Jewish canon and other books (from the Septuagint Greek Jewish canon) which Catholics call Deuterocanonical, while Protestants consider the latter Apocrypha. The first books of the New Testament are the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus. There are four canonical Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. The first three are often called synoptic because of the amount of material they share. The rest of the New Testament consists of a sequel to Luke's Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles, which describes the very early history of the Church, a collection of letters from early Christian leaders to congregations or individuals, the Pauline and General epistles, and the apocalyptic Book of Revelation. Some traditions maintain other canons. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church maintains two canons, the Narrow Canon, itself larger than any Biblical canon outside Ethiopia, and the Broad Canon, which has even more books. The Latter-day Saints hold three additional books to be the inspired word of God: the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. The Gnostics used numerous books outside of the orthodox canon, most famously the Gospel of Thomas. Interpretation Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus exists on the crucial matter of its interpretation, or exegesis. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation insisted on the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning. Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual, the latter being subdivided into the allegorical, moral, and anagogical senses. The literal sense is "the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation." The allegorical sense includes typology, for example the parting of the Red Sea is seen as a "type" of or sign of baptism; the moral sense contains ethical teaching; the anagogical sense includes eschatology and applies to eternity and the consummation of the world. Catholic theology also adds other rules of interpretation, which include the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal, that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held, that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church", and that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome." Protestants stress the literal sense or historical-grammatical method, even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Martin Luther advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture". Other Protestant interpreters still make use of typology. Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness", but John Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light." The Second Helvetic Confession said, "we hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise Creeds
Eschaton and afterlife Christians believe that the soul is eternal, and consciousness continues after death. In the General Resurrection, all who have died will bodily rise from the dead at the end of time to be judged by Jesus when he returns in fulfilment of scriptural prophecies. The Christian view of the afterlife includes the eternal realms of heaven and hell; in Catholicism those who die in a state of grace undergo purification in order to achieve the holiness necessary to enter Heaven in what is known as purgatory. Worship and practices
Christian life Christians believe that all people should strive to live in imitation of Christ; this includes obedience to the Ten Commandments, as interpreted by Christ (as in the Sermon on the Mount). Jesus taught that the greatest commandments were to: “love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, soul, mind, and strength,” and to “love thy neighbor as thyself.” This love includes such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", and applies to friend or enemy alike. Other Christian practice includes acts of piety such as prayer and Bible reading. Christianity teaches that one can only overcome sin though divine grace: moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the Holy Spirit dwelling within the believer. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection, they die with him to sin and can be resurrected with him to new life. Sacraments Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglo-Catholics describe Christian worship in terms of the seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist (communion), Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. Many Protestant groups, following Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and Eucharist, but not usually the other five in the same way. Anabaptist and Brethren groups would add feet washing. Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Holiness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such as spiritual healing, prophecy, exorcism, and glossolalia (speaking in tongues). These emphases are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure. Some Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them. Liturgical worship Justin Martyr described second century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius: And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. Justin's description, which applies to some extent to most church services today, alludes to the following components:
And this food is called among us Eukaristia the Eucharist, of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. Some Christians, particularily non-Lutheran Protestants, believe these represent the body and blood of Christ, whereas Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and many Anglicans believe that they become or are the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the Real Presence). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while some Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restrictions on who may partake, and visitors should ask about this before attempting to join in. Communion is not generally permitted to non-members in Catholic and Orthodox churches, and some Protestant churches invite visitors to participate only by prior arrangement with the minister. Even members may be subject to restrictions: for example, only Roman Catholics free from unconfessed mortal sin are eligible to receive Communion, though in practice it is rare for the Eucharist to be denied to any Catholic; Orthodox communicants are expected to make confession of sins and fast before communion; and in some Protestant churches, members must give notice to the minister or elders of an intent to take communion. Some denominations substitute grape juice for wine, while the Latter-day Saints use water for their weekly Sacrament.
The structure of a service may vary because of special events like baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend Sunday school. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the biblical Sabbath), not Sunday, the day of Christ's resurrection. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations strive to follow the Holy Spirit and may spontaneously be moved to action rather than follow a formal order of service. At Quaker meetings, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts more than liturgy, with rock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. Some denominations do not meet on a weekly basis, but form smaller cell groups within the church which meet weekly at peoples' homes, and gather together fortnightly or monthly for a larger celebration. In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones) the service is led by a priest. In others (mainly among Protestants) there is a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. A division is often made between "High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "Low" services, at which a more casual atmosphere prevails even if the service in question is liturgical in nature, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. In Orthodox churches the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for members who are unable to). Many Protestant churches follow a pattern in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (to the sermon). Roman Catholics tend to do the same, though standing for formal prayer is more common. Others services are less programmed and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated and often involves a choir and/or organ. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (many Churches of Christ object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy). In many nondenominational Christian churches, as well as many Protestant denominations, there is usually a worship music portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of hymns, praise and worship music or psalms. Many churches believe that worship is important as it demonstrates a Christian's love for God and the sacrifice that was made for them. A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship", which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of charismatic renewal within churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the Charismatic Episcopal Church. Liturgical Calendar Catholics, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around a liturgical calendar, which consists of a set of cycles of liturgical seasons observed annually. This includes holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, periods of fasting such as Lent, and other pious events. This practice draws from Jewish tradition, with such feasts as the Feast of Tabernacles, the Passover, and the Jubilee. Some Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas and Easter. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar. Symbols The best-known Christian symbol is the cross, of which many varieties exist. Several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the crucifix for Catholics, the crux orthodoxa for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the ichthys ("fish") symbol or, in ancient times, an anchor, as well as the chi-rho. In a modern Roman alphabet, the Chi-Rho appears like a large P with an X overlaid on the lower stem. They are the first two Greek letters of the word Christ - Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ), and the symbol is the one that is said to have appeared to Constantine prior to converting to Christianity (see History and origins section below). Demographics of Christianity There are various reports as to the growth of Christianity today. According to the U.S. Center for World Mission, Christianity is growing at about 2.3% annually, in terms of absolute numbers added. History and origins Beginnings of the Church Christianity Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own, while others were joined with Gentile Christians in the development of the church; within both groups there existed great diversity of belief. Professor Bentley Layton writes, "the lack of uniformity in ancient Christian scripture in the early period is very striking, and it points to the substantial diversity within the Christian religion." A church hierarchy seems to have developed by the time of the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim 3, Titus 1), indicating it was in existence from the first generation of Christians and was certainly formalized by the 4th century. Christianity spread across the Mediterranean Basin, enduring persecution by the Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Israel, it also came into increased contact with Hellenistic culture; Greek philosophy, especially Neoplatonism, became a significant influence on Christian thought through theologians such as Origen. Scholars differ on the extent to which the developing Christian faith adopted identifiably pagan beliefs. Theological diversity led to disputes about the correct interpretation of Christian teaching and to conflict within and between the local churches. Bishops and local synods condemned some theologians as heretics and defined Church views as orthodoxy (Greek: "the right view"), in contrast to what they deemed heresy (from Greek "faction" or "(wrong) choice"). One of the first notable group of heretics were Christian Gnostics, while other early sects deemed heretical included Marcionism, Ebionitism and Montanism. Following Christianity's legalization such disputes intensified. Ecumenical councils, beginning with the Council of Nicaea, called by Constantine in 325, were held to debate theological issues and reach clearer dogmatic definitions, thereby restoring unity. Acceptance by the Roman Empire
Middle Ages and Early modern period During the Migration Period, various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first Arianism was widespread (as among Goths and Vandals), but later Roman Catholicism prevailed, beginning with the Franks. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted Orthodox Christianity, as in the Baptism of Kievan Rus' (988) in Rus' (present-day Russia and Ukraine). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in the Great Schism (conventionally dated to 1054), which formally divided Christendom into the Catholic west and the Orthodox east. From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by Islam, which quickly conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. Numerous military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and the eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire and southeastern Europe by the Turks. Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the Pope, and by the development of scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The Roman Catholic Church managed to renew itself at the Council of Trent (1545 – 1563), but only after Martin Luther published his 95 theses in 1517. This was one of the key events of the Protestant Reformation which led to the emergence of Christian denominations. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states, while many Orthodox Christians found themselves living under Muslim rulers. Worldwide expansion Partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European Enlightenment took hold, Christianity was confronted with the discoveries of science (including the heliocentric model and the theory of evolution), and with the development of biblical criticism (linked to the development of Christian fundamentalism) and modern political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism and socialism. In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of ecumenism and the charismatic movement. (For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and culture, see Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian literature, Christian music, and Christian architecture.) Persecution of Christians Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and persecuted in the Roman Empire, mainly unofficially, but also sometimes officially. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal, and, especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects (the Jews only excepted) sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity — a practice that Christianity (along with Judaism) rejected. State persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire is taken to have ended with the Edict of Milan, but it persisted or even intensified in other places, such as Sassanid Persia. Later, under Islam, Christians were second-class citizens and have at times suffered violent persecution. There was some persecution of Christians after the French Revolution during the attempted Dechristianisation of France. State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as in Muslim states), or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting state atheism (as in North Korea). For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressed house churches or underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today. Complaints of discrimination have also been made by Christians in various other contexts. In some parts of the world, there is persecution of Christians by dominant religious groups or political groups. Many Christians are threatened, discriminated, jailed, or even killed for their faith. Christians are persecuted today in many areas of the world including Cuba, Middle East, North Korea, China, the Sudan, and Kosovo. Persecution by Christians Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, have destroyed pagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted groups seen as heretical. Later denominational strife has sometimes escalated into religious wars. Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America. The degree to which these acts were supported by formal Christian doctrine and scripture is a topic of much debate. Controversies and criticisms See also: Criticism of Christianity There are many controversies surrounding Christianity as to its influences and history. See also History and denominations Notes Primary Sources A J Secondary Sources A F M Popular Media A K Further reading | |||||||||||||||||
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