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Byzantine Empire (Greek name: - Basileia tōn Romaiōn) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is also often referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire. To its inhabitants the Empire was simply the Roman Empire and its emperors continued the unbroken succession of Roman emperors. During much of its history it was known to many of its Western contemporaries as The Empire of the Greeks due to the increasing dominance of its Greek population and distinct culture. Now most scholars acknowledge that the Byzantine Empire was the direct continuation of the Hellenistic World. There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of Diocletian (284–305) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a pars Orientis and a pars Occidentis. Some consider Constantine I its founder. Others place it during the reign of Theodosius I (379–395) and Christendom's victory over pagan Roman religion, or, following his death in 395, with the permanent division of the empire into western and eastern halves. Others place it yet further in 476, when the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate, thus leaving sole imperial authority to the emperor in the Greek East. Others again point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of Heraclius (ca. 620) when Greek was made the official language and the Empire's conflicts turned largely to the east. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of further Hellenization and increasing Christianization was already under way. Name of the Byzantine Empire The Empire's Greek name was Ρωμανία, Rōmanía, or Βασιλεία Ρωμαίων, Basileía Rōmaíōn, a direct translation of the Latin name of the Roman Empire, Imperium Romanorum. The term Byzantine Empire was introduced in western Europe in 1557, inspired from the city of Byzantium by German historian Hieronymus Wolf about a century after the fall of Constantinople who had taken it from the writing of 15th century Byzantine historian Laonicus Chalcocondyles. He presented a system of Byzantine historiography in his work Corpus Historiae Byzantinae, in order to "distinguish ancient Roman from medieval Greek history without drawing attention to their ancient predecessors". Standardization of the term began gradually in the 18th century, when French authors such as Montesquieu began to popularize it. Hieronymus himself was influenced by the rift caused by the 9th century dispute between Romans (Byzantines as we render them today) and Franks. The Franks under Charlemagne's newly formed empire, and in concert with the Pope, attempted to legitimize their conquests by claiming inheritance of Roman rights in Italy. The Donation of Constantine, one of the most famous forged documents in history, played a crucial role in this. Henceforth, it was prevalent in the West to refer to the emperor in Constantinople not by the usual Imperator Romanorum (Emperor of the Romans) which was now reserved for the Frankish monarch, but as Imperator Graecorum (Emperor of the Greeks) and the land as Imperium Graecorum, Graecia, Terra Graecorum or even Imperium Constantinopolitanum. All of this was resented by the Byzantines, who viewed their Basileus as the only legitimate Roman Emperor. The term was introduced in the English-speaking world by Sir George Finlay in 1854, in his work "History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires". Identity, continuity, and consciousness "Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire, soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand-year history, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: An empire that became a nation, almost by the modern meaning of the word". For instance, the scholar, teacher and translator, John Argyropoulos (Constantinople, c.1415 - c.1490) addressed John VII as ‘Sun King of Hellas’ and urged the last Emperor, Constantine XI, to proclaim himself ‘King of the Hellenes’. In the centuries following the Arab, Bulgar and Lombard conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the Balkans and Asia Minor contained an overwhelmingly large Greek population. Ethnic minorities and sizeable communities of religious heretics often lived on or near the borderlands, the Armenians on the eastern border consisting the only sizable one. As some scholars have pointed out, the Byzantine Empire of the 11th century coincided to a very large extent with the ethnic Greek distribution of the early 20th century and the areas of Greek colonization in the ancient world. However this ignores the much wider distribution of Greeks throughout the Eastern half of the empire (particularly, the cities of Antioch, Alexandria and throughout Egypt, Palestine and Syria) prior to the Muslim conquest.* The Byzantines identified themselves as Romans (Ρωμαίοι - Romaioi) and more than ever before were developing a national consciousness as residents of Ρωμανία (Rōmania). This nationalist awareness is reflected in literature, particularly in the acritic songs, where frontiersmen (Ακρίτες) are praised for defending their country against invaders, of which the most famous is the heroic or epic poem Digenis Akritas. Byzantines were generally conscious of their continuity with the ancient Greeks and Romans. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the Byzantine intellectuals regarded them as their ancestors, and referring to their medieval Greek language as "Hellenic". In fact, the Byzantines did not only refer to themselves as Rōmaioi in order to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. A common substitute for the term "Hellene" (originally with pagan connotations) other than Rōmaios was the term Γραίκος (Graikos). Evidence of the use of the term Graikos can be found in the works of Priscus, a historian of the 5th century. In one of his accounts while part of an unofficial embassy to Attila the Hun, he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like a Scythian yet spoke Greek. When Priscus asked the person where he had learned the language, the man said that he was a Graikos by birth. The official dissolution of the Byzantine state in the 15th century did not immediately undo Byzantine society. During the Ottoman occupation Greeks continued to identify themselves as both Ρωμιοί (Rōmioi) and Έλληνες (Hellēnes), a trait that survived into the early 20th century and still persists today in Greece, albeit the former more in line with folklore today. Origin Caracalla's decree in 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside of Italy to all free adult males in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied around the entire Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all of Italy. The division of the Empire began with the Tetrarchy (quadrumvirate) in the late 3rd century with Emperor Diocletian, as an institution intended to more efficiently control the vast Roman Empire. He split the Empire in half, with two emperors (Augusti) ruling from Italy and Greece, each having as co-emperor a younger colleague of their own (Caesares). After Diocletian's voluntary abandonment of the throne, the Tetrarchic system began soon to crumble: the division continued in some form into the 4th century until 324 when Constantine I killed his last rival and became the sole emperor. Constantine made two momentous and far-reaching decisions; one being when he decided to found a new capital city and chose Byzantium for that purpose, and the other being his adoption of Christianity. Rome had long since ceased to be an effective political capital of the Empire, being too far from the endangered northern frontiers and the wealthy Eastern provinces, and since the mid 3rd century had rarely seen Emperors on a regular basis. Byzantium was well positioned astride the trade routes between East and West, was a superb base from which to guard the crucial Danubian provinces, and was reasonably close to the Eastern frontiers. Constantine had experienced its potential as a fortress firsthand when it held out as the last pocket of resistance during his successful war against his Eastern rival Licinius (324). In 330, Nova Roma was officially founded very near the location of Byzantium (which subsequently disappeared), however the populace commonly called it Constantinople (in Greek, Κωνσταντινούπολις, Kōnstantinoúpolis, meaning Constantine's City). Constantine began the building of the great fortified walls that were perhaps the most striking feature of the city. These walls, expanded and rebuilt in subsequent ages, combined with the fortified harbor and fleet, made Constantinople a virtually impregnable fortress, and certainly the most important fortress in the early Middle Ages. On several occasions in the hundreds of years to come, Constantinople would stand as the last bulwark of Roman civilization in the eastern Mediterranean, and indeed as the main bulwark of Christian civilization as a whole. The new capital became the center of his administration. Constantine deprived the single praetorian prefect of his civil functions, introducing regional prefects with civil authority. During the 4th century, four great "regional prefectures" were also created. Constantine is generally considered to be the first Christian emperor. Tradition holds that he received a vision at the Battle of Milvian Bridge promising him victory with the adaptation of the labarum, although delayed receiving baptism until shortly before his death. Whatever the actual case may be, there is no question that after 312 Constantine began to shower favors on Christianity, and the religion, which had been persecuted under Diocletian, became a "permitted religion" and steadily increased its power as years passed, apart from a short-lived return to pagan predominance under the emperor Julian. Although the empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the pagan Roman Empire. Constantine also introduced a new stable gold coin, the solidus, which was to become the standard coin for centuries, and not only in the Byzantine Empire. Another defining moment in the history of the Empire was the Battle of Adrianople in 378 in which the Emperor Valens and the best of the remaining Roman legions were killed by the Visigoths. This defeat has been proposed by some authorities as one possible date for dividing the ancient and medieval worlds. The Roman Empire was divided further by Valens' successor Theodosius I (also called "the Great"), who had ruled both parts since 392: following the dynastic principle well established by Constantine, in 395 Theodosius gave the two halves to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius; Arcadius became ruler of the eastern half, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler of the western half, with his capital in Ravenna. Theodosius was the last Roman emperor whose authority covered the entire traditional extent of the Roman Empire. At this point, it is common to refer to the empire as "Eastern Roman" rather than "Byzantine." Early history The Eastern Roman Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the 3rd and 4th centuries (see Crisis of the Third Century) in part because urban culture was better established there and the richer east could more easily afford both to placate invaders with tribute and to pay barbarian mercenaries to serve in its armies. Throughout the 5th century, various invading armies overran the western half of the Roman Empire but refrained from ravaging the east. Theodosius II further fortified the walls of Constantinople, leaving the city impenetrable to attacks; it was to be preserved from foreign conquest until 1204. To spare the Eastern Roman Empire from the invasion of the Huns of Attila, Theodosius gave them subsidies, said to be 300kg (700lbs) of gold. Moreover, he favored merchants living in Constantinople who traded with the barbarians. His successor, Marcian, refused to continue to pay the great sum. However, Attila had already diverted his attention from the Western Roman Empire and died, in 453, after the Battle of Chalons. The Hunnic Empire collapsed and Constantinople was free from the menace of Attila. This started a profitable relationship between the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining Huns. The Huns would eventually fight as mercenaries in Byzantine armies during the following centuries. At the time since the fall of Attila, the true chief in Constantinople was the Alan general Aspar. Leo I managed to free himself from the influence of the barbarian chief favouring the rise of the Isaurians, a crude semi-barbarian tribe living in Roman territory, in southern Anatolia. Aspar and his son Ardabur were murdered in a riot in 471, and henceforth, Constantinople became free from foreign influences for centuries. Leo was also the first emperor to receive the crown not from a general or an officer, as evident in the Roman tradition, but from the hands of the patriarch of Constantinople. This habit became mandatory as time passed, and in the Middle Ages, the religious characteristic of the coronation had totally substituted the old form. In 468, Leo unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer North Africa from the Vandals. By that time, the Western Roman Empire was already restricted to Italy (Britain had fallen to Angles and Saxons, Spain fell to the Visigoths, Africa fell to the Vandals and Gaul fell to the Franks). In 466, as a condition of his Isaurian alliance, Leo married his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian Tarasicodissa, who took the name Zeno. When Leo died in 474, Zeno and Ariadne's minor son (Leo I's grandson) succeeded to the throne as Leo II, with Zeno acting as regent. When Leo II died later that year, Zeno became emperor. The end of the Western Empire is sometimes dated to 476, early in Zeno's reign, when the barbarian general Odoacer deposed the titular Western Emperor Romulus Augustus, but declined to replace him with another puppet. To recover Italy, Zeno could only negotiate with the Ostrogoths of Theodoric who had been settled in Moesia. He sent the barbarian king in Italy as magister militum per Italiam ("chief of staff for Italy"). After the fall of Odoacer in 493, Theodoric, who had lived in Constantinople during his youth, ruled over Italy on his own, maintaining a merely formal obedience to Zeno. He revealed himself as the most powerful Germanic king of that age, but his successors were greatly inferior to him and their kingdom of Italy started to decline in the 530s. In 475, Zeno was deposed by a plot to elevate Basiliscus (the general who led Leo I's 468 invasion of North Africa) to the throne. Zeno recovered the throne twenty months later. However, Zeno had to face the threat coming from his Isaurian former official Illo and the other Isaurian, Leontius, who was also elected rival emperor. Isaurian prominence ended when an aged civil officer of Roman origin, Anastasius I, became emperor in 491 and after a long war defeated them in 498. Anastasius revealed himself to be an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine I's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis, the coin used in most everyday transactions. He also reformed the tax system, and abolished the hated chrysargyron tax in a manner that ensured that it could never be revived. The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 pounds of gold when he died. Age of Justinian I
Fight for survival
Golden age
Internal developments Although traditionally attributed to Basil I (867-886), initiator of the Macedonian dynasty, the "Byzantine renaissance" has been more recently ascribed largely to the reforms of his predecessor, Michael III (842-867) and his wife's counsellor, the erudite Theoktistos. The latter in particular favoured culture at the court, and, with a careful financial policy, increased steadily the gold reserves of the Empire. The rise of the Macedonian dynasty coincided with internal developments which strengthened the religious unity of the empire. The iconoclast movement was experiencing a steep decline: this favoured its soft suppression by the emperors and the reconciliation of the religious strife that had drained the imperial resources in the previous centuries. Despite occasional tactical defeats, the administrative, legislative, cultural and economic situation continued to improve under Basil's successors, especially with Romanos I Lekapenos (920-944). The theme military subdivision reached its definitive form in this period, with new ones added in recognition of the new conquests. The church establishment began to support loyally the imperial cause, and the power of the landowning class was limited in favour of agricultural small holders, who made up an important part of the military force of the Empire. These favourable conditions contributed to the increasing ability of the emperors to wage war against the Arabs. Wars against the Muslims By 867, the empire had stabilised its position in both the east and the west, while the success of its defensive military structure had enabled the emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east. However, the reconquest process began with variable fortunes. The temporary reconquest of Crete (843-843) was followed by a crushing Byzantine defeat on the Bosphorus, while the emperors were unable to prevent the ongoing gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily (827-902). Using present day Tunisia as their launching pad, the Muslims conquered Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, Syracuse in 878, Catania in 900 and the final Greek stronghold, the fortress of Taormina, in 902. These drawbacks were later counterbalanced by a victorious expedition against Damietta in Egypt (856), the defeat of the Emir of Melitene (863), the confirmation of the imperial authority over Dalmatia (867) and Basil I's offensives towards the Euphrates (870s). The threat from the Muslims was meanwhile reduced by inner struggles and by the rise of the Turks in the east, but the Byzantine empire found another enemy in the Paulician sect, which had found a large following in the eastern provinces of the Empire and often fought under the Arab flag. It took several campaigns to subdue the Paulicians, who were eventually defeated by Basil I. However, in 904, disaster struck the empire when its second city, Thessalonica, was sacked by an Arab fleet under a Byzantine renegade. The Byzantines responded by destroying an Arab fleet, in 908, and sacking the city of Laodicea in Syria two years later. Despite this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces as they attempted to regain Crete in 911. The situation on the border with the Arab territories remained fluid, with the Byzantines alternatively on the offensive or defensive. The Russians, who appeared near Constantinople for the first time in 860, were another new enemy to face. In 941 they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, but this time they were crushed, showing the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. The vanquisher of the Russians was the famous general John Kourkouas, who continued the offensive with other noteworthy victories in Mesopotamia (943): these culminated in the reconquest of Edessa (944), which was especially celebrated for the return to Constantinople of the venerated Mandylion relic. The soldier emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (reigned 963-969) and John I Tzimiskes (969-976) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north-west Iraq and reconquering Crete and Cyprus. At one point under John, the empire's armies even threatened Jerusalem, far to the south. The emirate of Aleppo and its neighbours became vassals of the empire in the east, where the greatest threat to the empire was the Egyptian Fatimid kingdom. Wars against the Bulgars
Triumph
Crisis and fragmentation Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of the aristocracy, which undermined the theme system. The succession of weak rulers who succeeded Basil II after 1025 disbanded the large armies which had been defending the eastern provinces from attack; instead gold was stockpiled in Constantinople, ostensibly in order to hire mercenaries should troubles arise. In fact, most of the money was frittered away in the form of gifts to favourites of the emperor, extravagant court banquets, and expensive luxuries for the imperial family. Meanwhile, the remnants of the once-formidable armed forces were allowed to decay, to the point where they were no longer capable of functioning as an army. Elderly men with ill-maintained equipment mixed with new recruits who had never participated in a training exercise. Facing its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, the Eastern Roman Empire might have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation. In 1040, the Normans, originally landless mercenaries from northern parts of Europe in search of plunder, began attacking the Byzantine strongholds in southern Italy. In order to deal with them, a mixed force of mercenaries and conscripts under the formidable George Maniakes was sent to Italy in 1042. Maniakes and his army engulfed the land in a fury of destruction, leaving a trail of burning ruins and shattered fortresses behind them. Any who opposed this terrifying advance were tortured to death; many were buried alive. However, before he could complete his campaign of annihilation, the general was recalled to Constantinople due to palace intrigue. Gripped by murderous rage at a serious of outrages against his wife and property by one of his rivals, he was proclaimed emperor by his troops, and led them across the Adriatic to victory against a loyalist army. However, a mortal wound led to his death shortly afterwards. With the opposition absent in the Balkans, the Normans were able to complete the expulsion of the Byzantines from Italy by 1071. It was in Asia Minor, however, that the greatest disaster would take place. The Seljuk Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt under the Fatimids, nevertheless conducted a series of damaging raids into Armenia and eastern Anatolia, which was the main recruiting ground for Byzantine armies. With the imperial armies weakened by years of insufficient funding and civil warfare, Emperor Romanos Diogenes realised that a time of re-structuring and re-equipment was necessary. Consequently, he attempted to lead a defensive campaign in the east until his forces had recovered enough to defeat the Seljuks. However, due to treachery from his opponents who deserted him on the field of battle, he suffered a surprise defeat at the hands of Alp Arslan (Sultan of the Seljuk Turks) at Manzikert in 1071. Romanos was captured, and, although the Sultan's peace terms were not excessive, the battle was catastrophic for the Byzantine Empire in another way. On his release, Romanos found that his enemies had conspired against him to place their own candidate on the throne in his absence. After two defeats in battle against the rebels, Romanos surrendered and suffered a horrific death by torture. The new ruler, Michael Doukas, refused to honour the treaty that had been signed by Romanos. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073, while the collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition. To make matters worse, chaos reigned as the empire's remaining resources were squandered in a series of disastrous civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, an area of 30,000 square miles had been lost to the empire. It is almost impossible to overestimate the significance of these events, as within less than a decade more than half of the manpower of the empire had been lost, along with much of its grain supply. Thus, the battle of Manzikert resulted in the greatest blow to the empire in its 700 years of history. Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders
Alexios I Komnenos After Manzikert, a partial recovery was made possible due to the efforts of the Komnenian dynasty. This is sometimes referred to as the Komnenian restoration. The first emperor of this royal line was Alexios I Komnenos (whose life and policies would be described by his daughter Anna Komnene in the Alexiad). Alexios' long reign of nearly 37 years was full of struggle. At his accession in 1081, the Byzantine Empire was in chaos after a prolonged period of civil war resulting from the defeat at Manzikert. At the very outset of his reign, Alexios had to meet the formidable attack of the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto, who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly (see Battle of Dyrrhachium). Alexios led his forces in person against the Normans, yet despite his best efforts his army was destroyed in the field. Alexios himself was wounded in the battle, and for a time it looked as though the empire's final hour had come. However, at the moment of supreme crisis fate relented on the unfortunate Alexios, and the Norman danger was ended for the time being with Robert Guiscard's death in 1085. However, Alexios's trials and tribulations were only just beginning. At the very moment when the Emperor urgently needed to raise as much revenue as possible from his shattered empire, taxation and the economy were in complete disarray. Inflation was spiralling out of control, the coinage was heavily debased, the fiscal system was confused (there were six different nomismata in circulation), and the imperial treasury was empty. In desperation, Alexios had been forced to finance his campaign against the Normans by using the wealth of the Orthodox Church, which had been put at his disposal by the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1087, Alexios faced a new invasion. This time, the invaders consisted of a horde of 80,000 Pechenegs from north of the Danube, and they were heading for Constantinople. Without enough troops to repel this new threat, Alexios used diplomacy to achieve a victory against the odds. Having bribed the Cumans, another barbarian tribe, to come to his aid, he advanced against the Pechenegs, who were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091. With stability at last achieved in the west, Alexios now had a chance to begin solving his severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences. In order to reestablish the army, Alexios began to build a new force on the basis of feudal grants (próniai) and prepared a to advance against the Seljuks, who had conquered Asia Minor and were now established at Nicaea. However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor. Having been impressed by the abilities of the Norman cavalry at Dyrrhachium, he sent his ambassadors west to ask for reinforcements from Europe. The ambassadors dispatched their mission with great success - at the Council of Piacenza in 1095, Pope Urban II was impressed by Alexios's appeal for help, which spoke of the suffering of the Christians of the east, and hinted at a possible union of the eastern and western churches. Pope Urban was concerned with increasing restlessness of the martial nobility in Western Europe, who, currently deprived of major enemies, were causing chaos throughout the countryside. Alexios's appeal offered a means not only to redirect the energy of the knights to benefit the Church, but also to consolidate the authority of the Pope over Christendom and to gain the east for the See of Rome. First Crusade
Slow recovery Despite his many successes, during the last twenty years of his life, Alexios lost much of his popularity. This was largely due to the harsh measures he was forced to take in order to save the embattled empire. Conscription was introduced, causing resentment among the peasantry, despite the pressing need for new recruits to the imperial army. In order to restore the imperial treasury, Alexios took measures to tax the aristocracy heavily; he also cancelled many of the exemptions from taxation that the church had previously enjoyed. In order to ensure that all taxes were paid in full, and to halt the cycle of debasement and inflation, he completely reformed the coinage, issuing a new gold hyperpyron (highly refined) coin for the purpose. By 1109, he had managed to restore order by working out a proper rate of exchange for the whole coinage. His new hyperpyron would be the standard Byzantine coin for the next two hundred years. The final years of Alexios's reign were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies — one of his last acts was to burn at the stake the Bogomil leader, Basil the Physician, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy; by renewed struggles with the Turks (1110–1117); and by anxieties as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour of her daughter Anna's husband, Nikephorus Bryennios, for whose benefit the special title panhypersebastos ("honored above all") was created. This intrigue disturbed even his dying hours. Nevertheless, despite the unpopularity of some of his measures, Alexios' efforts had been vital to the survival of the empire. Financially and militarily bankrupt, and facing wave after wave of foreign invasion, the empire he inherited had been on the point of collapse. His long struggle to protect and restore the strength of the empire had been exhausting; however, because of his heroic and tireless actions, Alexios' successors inherited a viable state, with both the internal stability, and the military and financial resources, to expand in the future. Johns restoration of the empire
Manuel I Komnenos John's chosen heir was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos. According to Niketas Choniates, a historian of Byzantium, Manuel was chosen over his elder surviving brother because of his ability to listen carefully to advice. Manuel was known for his lively and charismatic personality; he was known for his love for all things from Western Europe. Manuel arranged jousting matches, even participating in them, an unusual experience for the Byzantines. Manuel himself is generally considered the most brilliant of the four emperors of the Komnenos dynasty; unusual for a Byzantine ruler, his reputation was particularly good in the west and the Crusader states, especially after his death. The Latin historian William of Tyre described Manuel as "beloved of God... a great-souled man of incomparable energy", whose "memory will ever be held in benediction". Manuel was further extolled by Robert of Clari as a "generous and worthy man". Manuel dedicated himself to restore the glory of his empire, and to regain the status of superpower inside the Mediterranean world. Manuel's foreign policy was both ambitious and expansive, reaching out to all corners of the Mediterranean world. He made several alliances, with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and successfully handled the passage of the potential dangerous Second Crusade through his empire, establishing a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer. Manuel campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east; facing Muslims in Palestine, he allied himself with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to invade Italy in 1155. Operating as part of a coalition of Byzantine, rebel, and Papal forces, Manuel's armies achieved initial success. However, disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the expedition. Despite this military setback, Manuel was undeterred, and his armies successfully invaded the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium. Manuel was highly successful in the Balkans and Hungary - historian Paul Magdalino argues that no emperor had dominated the region so effectively since Late Antiquity. In the east, however, Manuel's achievements are more ambiguous. Manuel suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Myriokephalon, in 1176, against the Turks. He and his army were marching against Konya, the Turkish capital, when they were ambushed; the ensuing defeat has since entered the popular imagination as a legendary disaster. Exaggerated accounts of the battle often describe the destruction of the entire Byzantine army, and with it the end of Byzantine power and influence. However, the modern consensus among Byzantine historians is that, while the Battle of Myriokephalon was a serious humiliation for the emperor, it was certainly not a catastrophe. Nor was it in any way equivalent to the Battle of Manzikert over a century earlier. In fact, much of the emperor's army emerged from the battle without serious damage. The units involved in the battle are well documented campaigning in Asia Minor the next year. The imperial frontier remained unmoved for the remainder of Manuel's reign, a clear indication that the Turks were unable to gain any advantage from their victory. In the following year (1177) the Byzantines inflicted a major defeat on a large Turkish force in the Meander valley. Thus, despite its dramatic reputation, it is clear that the battle had done nothing to alter the dominant strategic position of the empire in Asia Minor. By contrast, Manuel's programme of fortification in Byzantine Asia, for which he was praised by Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates, is largely regarded as an important success. Manuel demanded tribute from the Turkmen of the Anatolian interior for the winter pasture in Imperial territory; he also improved the defenses of many cities and towns, and established new garrisons and fortresses across the region. As a result of the cumulative efforts of all three Komnenian emperors, Manuel's domination of Asia Minor was more effective than that of any emperor since before Manzikert. As historian Paul Magdalino makes clear, "by the end of Manuel's reign, the Byzantines controlled all the rich agricultural lowlands of the peninsula, leaving only the less hospitable mountain and plateau areas to the Turks." In the religious sphere, disputes between the Catholic and the Orthodox Church occasionally harmed efforts at cooperation with the Latins; however, Manuel was almost certainly the Byzantine emperor who came closest to healing the breach between the two churches. Pope Innocent III clearly had a positive view of Manuel when he told Alexios III that he should imitate "your outstanding predecessor of famous memory the emperor Manuel... in devotion to the Apostolic See, both in words and in works". Manuel was very successful in expanding his influence, particularly over the Crusader states. As an example, Manuel participated in the building and decorating of many of the basilicas and Greek monasteries in the Holy Land, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where due his efforts the Byzantine clergy were allowed to perform the Greek liturgy each day. All this reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem respectively. This success in gaining influence and allies among the western states and the Pope is regarded one of the most impressive achievements of Manuel Komnenos's reign. Military reform At the beginning of the Komnenian period in 1081, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced to the smallest territorial extent in its history. Surrounded by enemies, and financially ruined by a long period of civil war, the empire's prospects had looked grim. Yet, through a combination of determination, military reform, and years of campaigning, Alexios I Komnenos, John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos managed to restore the power of the Byzantine Empire. An important factor in the success of the Komnenoi was their establishment of a reconstructed Byzantine army. The new military system which they created is known as the Komnenian army. From c.1081 to c.1180, the Komnenian army played an important role in providing the empire with a period of security that enabled Byzantine civilization to flourish. Twelfth century Renaissance
Death of Manuel Komnenos The 12th century was marked by a series of wars against the Hungarians and the Serbs. Emperor Manuel I Komnenos campaigned successfully in this region, forcing the rebellious Serbs to vassalage (1150-1152) and leading his troops into Hungary. In 1168, a decisive victory near Zemun enabled him to conclude a peace by which Dalmatia and other frontier territories were ceded to him. Manuel's success enabled him to choose the next king of Hungary, and he duly appointed Béla III in 1172. However, from the moment of Manuel's death on 24 September 1180, the Byzantine Empire began a steep decline that would never be reversed. Collapse under the Angeloi The Komnenos dynasty was replaced in 1185 by that of the Angeloi. It is the universal verdict of history that the inaction and ineptitude of the Angeloi quickly lead to a collapse in Byzantine power on all fronts. Surrounded by a crowd of slaves, mistresses and flatterers, they permitted the empire to be administered by unworthy favourites, while they squandered the money wrung from the provinces on costly buildings and expensive gifts to the churches of the metropolis. They scatterred money so lavishly as to empty the treasury, and allowed such license to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. Together, they consummated the financial ruin of the state. The empire's enemies lost no time in taking advantage of this new situation. In the east the Turks invaded the empire, gradually eroding Byzantine control in Asia Minor. Meanwhile in the west, the Serbs and Hungarians broke away from the empire for good, and in Bulgaria the oppressiveness of Angeloi taxation resulted in the Vlach-Bulgarian Rebellion, organised in 1185 in Bulgaria by the brothers Asen and Peter. The rebellion led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire on territory which had been vital to the empire's security in the Balkans. Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed several important cities, while the Angeloi squandered the public treasure on palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means. These events significantly contributed to the decline of the Byzantine empire. Control of the Balkans was vital to imperial security at this time. The empire's losses to Bulgaria and Serbia were a major disaster, significantly reducing the amount of territory, manpower and revenue available to the state. They also meant that the easily-defensible Danube frontier was replaced by a long and vulnerable land frontier through the rich provinces of South Greece, Macedonia and Thrace with the two revived aggressive Slav states to the north. Byzantine authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation, as the provinces began to look to local strongmen rather than the government in Constantinople for protection. This further reduced the resources available to the empire and its military system, as large regions passed outside central control. By 1204, the days of Byzantine supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean were gone for good. The Fourth Crusade
The fall of the Byzantine Empire
Aftermath Mehmed II went on to conquer the Greek statelets of Mistra in 1460 and Trebizond in 1461. By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had established its firm rule over Asia Minor and parts of the Balkan peninsula. Mehmed and his successors continued to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantine Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities harbored Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles (see Byzantium after Byzantium for details). Technically, the Byzantine Empire lived on in the city of Monemvasia in the Morea, until 1471, when the titular Despot of the Morea, Demetrius Palaeologus, now living in Rome under the protection of the Pope, sold it to the latter for cash. Meanwhile, his nephew, and the nephew of the last Emperor, Constantine XI Palaeologus, Andreas Palaeologus had inherited the defunct title of Byzantine Emperor and used it since 1465 until his death in 1503. At his death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand Dukes of Muscovy. He had married Andreas's sister, Sophia Paleologue, whose grandson, Ivan IV, would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar, also spelled czar, is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the Russian Empire as the new, Third Rome was kept alive until its demise in 1917, with the Russian Revolution. Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796), launched a series of campaigns against the Ottomans to capture Constantinople and recreate the Byzantine Empire under Russian control. She commissioned the Sophia Cathedral in her imperial residence, named her grandson after the first Byzantine Emperor and managed to wrest the Crimea from the Ottomans. Although the Russian armies would approach Constaninople in 1829 and 1878, the Ottoman Empire was rescued by the intervention of the Great Powers during the Crimean War and Congress of Berlin. Legacy and importance
Economy The Byzantine economy was the most advanced in Europe for many centuries. The Byzantine Solidus was the internationally preferred currency for 700 years, only gradually being superseded by Italian currencies (particularly that of Venice) after 1204. The wealth of the empire was unmatched by any state in Europe, and its capital was one of the wealthiest cities in the world. This economic wealth was helped enormously by the fact that Byzantium was the most important western terminal of the Silk Road. It was also the single most important commercial center of Europe for much of the Medieval era, which status it held until Venice began to overtake Constantinople during the 13th and 14th centuries. One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. Constantinople was located on important east-west and north-south trade routes. Trebizond was an important port in th |
