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Ancient Egyptian medicine refers to the common medicalcirca 3300 BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC. The ancient Egyptians had highly advanced medical practices for their time, including surgery, setting of bones and an extensive set of Pharmacopoeia. While their remedies were sometimes characterized by magical incantations and dubious ingredients, they often had a rational basis. Medical texts specified specific steps of examination, diagnosis, prognosis and treatments that were often rational and appropriate.
Sources of Information Until the 19th century, the main sources of information regarding ancient Egyptian medicine were the writers from a later period of antiquity. Homer, writing in the Odyssey (c. 800 BC) remarked: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind". The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 440 BC and wrote extensively of his observations of their medicinal practices. Pliny the Elder also wrote favorably of them in historical review. Hippocrates (the "father of medicine"), Herophilos, Erasistratus and later Galen studied at the temple of Amenhotep, and acknowledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to Greek medicine. This situation began to change in 1822 with the decipherment of the Rosetta stone, which finally allowed the translation of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions and papyri, including many related to medical matters. The resultant upswing in interest in Egyptology in the 19th century led to the discovery of several sets of extensive ancient medical documents, including the Ebers papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Hearst Papyrus and others dating back as far as 3000 BC. Medical information contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus dates from as early as 3000 BC*. The earliest known surgery was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC (see surgery). Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and as the original author of the Edwin Smith papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations. The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa 1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery and describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments*. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, but in it there is evidence of a long tradition of empirical practice and observation. The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest documentation of an awareness of tumors. Other information comes from the images that often adorn the walls of Egyptian tombs and the translation of the accompanying inscriptions. The tomb of Ankn-ma-hor of the 6th Dynasty (circa 2200BC) has a detailed rendering of a ceremonial circumcision. Advances in modern medical technology also contributed to the understanding of ancient Egyptian medicine. Paleopathologists were able to use first X-Rays and later CAT Scans to view the bones and organs of mummies. Electron microscopes, mass spectrometry and various technical forensic techniques allowed scientists unique glimpses of the state of health in Egypt 4000 years ago. Magic and religion Magic and religion were part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many ailments, so often the treatments involved some supernatural element. Often the first recourse would be an appeal to a deity. Often priests and magicians were called on to treat disease instead of, or in addition to a physician. Physicians themselves often used incantations and magical ingredients as part of their treatments. Since the belief in magic and religion was so commonplace in Egypt, it is as though the use of magic and religion would have contributed to a powerful placebo effect. Since many medicines appeared to lack active ingredients, the perceived validity of the cure, including the authoritativeness of the magical incantations, would have contributed to its effectiveness. The impact of the emphasis on magic is seen in the selection of remedies, or the ingredients for those remedies. Ingredients were sometimes selected seemingly because they were derived from a substance, plant or animal the had characteristics which in some way corresponded to the symptoms of the patient. This is known as the principle of simila similibus (similar with similar) and is found throughout the history of medicine up to the modern practice of homeopathy. Thus an ostrich egg is included in the treatment of a broken skull, and an amulet portraying a hedgehog might be used against baldness. Amulets in general were enormously popular with ancient Egyptians, being worn for many magical purposes. Health related amulets are classified as homopoeic, phylactic and theophoric. Homeopoetic amulets portray an animal or a part of an animal from which the wearer hopes to assimilate positive attributes (like strength or speed). Phylactic amulates were protective, warding off harmful gods and demons. The famous Eye of Horus was often used on a phylactic amulet. Theophoric amulets represented the Egyptian gods, such as one representing the girdle of Isis, used to stem the flow of blood at miscarriage. Doctors and other healers The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is swnw. There is a long history of swnw in ancient Egypt. The earliest recorded physician in the world is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesyre, “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King Djoser in the 27th century BC *. The lady Peseshet (2400 BC) was possibly the mother of Akhethotep, and on a stela dedicated to her in his tomb she is referred to as imy-r swnwt, which has been translated as “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians” (swnwt is the feminine of swnw). This may make her the first recorded female doctor. There were many ranks and specializations in the swnw. Royalty had their own swnw, even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are ophthalmologist, gastroenterologist, proctologist, dentist, "doctor who supervises butchers" and an unspecified "inspector of liquids". The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, neru phuyt, literally translates as "shepherd of the anus". Medical institutions are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since as early as the 1st Dynasty. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave. Employees worked 8 hours per day *. General overview The Egyptians had a lot of knowledge about the anatomy of the human body even though they never dissected the body. For example, in the classic mummification process, they cleanly removed the brain out of the body via the nose using a long hook. The Egyptian physicians also were aware of the importance of the pulse, and of a connection between pulse and heart. Author of the Smith Papyrus had even some vague idea of a cardiac system, though not of course of a circulation.Still, he was not able to distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. Medical knowledge in ancient Egypt was so advanced that other kings and emperors from different empires would write to the Egyptian pharaoh to send them their best surgeon to perform operations. Mostly the Egyptian physician's advice for staying healthy was to wash and shave the body, including under the arms. This would have worked because cleaning would prevent microbes and viruses. The physicians would also advise their patients to look after their diet, and avoid foods such as raw fish or other animals which would not be clean. While ancient medicine had some effective practices, such as many of the surgical procedures given in the Edwin Smith papyrus, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. For example, Homer's Odyssey declared regarding the ancient Egyptians that "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art". * However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective. * For example, according to a paper published in the 10th Annual Proceedings of the History of Medicine Days by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements. * Also, according to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the middle ages.* While the use of animal dung has curative properties * it is not without its risk. For example, Mamtani, Malhotra, Gupta, and Jain found in their comparative study of urban and rural tetanus in adults that practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing and tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus. * In addition, it has been found that Pakistani caregivers who use topical antibiotics for their babies' circumcision wounds instead of using dung, ghee, urine etc, prevent those babies from getting neonatal tetanus. * Frank J. Snoek, PhD wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies, which he believes could have been harmful. * | ||||||||
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